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aitSairr-WiCar-ir-a,„
in Way does not end with the physical
-7A. .!
severing of the umbilical cord but
linvistie'Stitekna
"(ten 1"WieVeisenrels " continues in a lengthy dependence on the
leakintriltS1 _ua =Mit mother or primary caregiver(s) for food
41s112zXVIiIYi)o neimes S ificattits
and safety. Years are needed for the
8 rizr.z.-- r -
infant to reach physical and reproductive
lentigiSetedinP
maturation, but as Cacioppo notes, even
more importantly these years are needed
Chapter 44 for the infant to develop the social and
Health by Connection: emotional skills necessary for survival in
From Social Brains to Resilient Bodies a complex social world. We graduate
We enter and leave the world from infantile dependence not to
alone, but at no time do we exist independence but to interdependence
disconnected from others. The (cooperation, trust, reciprocity, etc.).
connection with the mother that begins That we are born to and for connection
explains why feeling disconnected,
4 The lead author is Louise C. Hawkley, Ph.D., a isolated, and like we don't belong can be
Senior Research Scientist (Assistant Professor), so painful. We call these feelings
member of the Center for Cognitive and Social loneliness. Feelings of loneliness
Neuroscience, and Associate Director of the
function like physical pain or hunger or
Social Neuroscience Laboratory at the University
thirst; they motivate us to alleviate the
of Chicago. Her research is concerned with the
interplay of psychological and physiological social pain and to repair our sense of
factors, and includes the study of autonomic, connectedness. This is an important
neuroendocrine, immune, genetic, and behavioral
adaptive function of loneliness because
processes that contribute to physical and mental
people who feel connected fare much
health and well-being in individuals differing in
better than those who feel disconnected.
perceived social connectedness. She has
published numerous articles and chapters on They are not only happier but also
perceived social isolation (loneliness) and its healthier than their more lonely
antecedents and consequences in young and
counterparts. As we will see, the power
aging adults.
of felt connectedness reverberates
Hawkley finds awe in the significance
throughout the human body. As was
of what it means to be a social species. Atul
Gawande wrote, "We are social not just in the aptly stated by Frederick Buechner,
trivial sense that we like company, and not just "You can kiss your family and friends
in the obvious sense that we each depend on
good-bye and put miles between you,
others. We are social in a more elemental way:
but at the same time you carry them with
simply to exist as a normal human being requires
you in your heart, your mind, your
interaction with other people" (The New Yorker,
March 2009). Hawkley believes that we are stomach, because you do not just live in
social beings to our cellular core, and even that a world but a world lives in you."' We
does not capture the full extent of our sociality.
tend to take for granted our sense of
For these reasons, she is increasingly
social connectedness, but that should not
uncomfortable with the term "loneliness," a term
blind us to its powerful, albeit invisible,
that is laden with popular definitions and
understandings that only hint at the deeper influence on our lives. Its impact is best
significance of our social nature. As she shows, exposed when we observe the effects of
what the study of loneliness actually reveals is
its absence (i.e., loneliness) on physical
that feeling wanted and accepted and like one
and mental health and well-being.
belongs are as vital to our existence as the air we
Loneliness is a Health Risk, but How?
breathe. Nothing kills like being denied a
socially meaningful existence.
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For research purposes, loneliness lonely individuals are actually more
is typically measured on a continuum likely than nonlonely individuals to
that ranges from not at all lonely (i.e., make use of health facilities and
socially connected) to very lonely. It is physicians."
informative, however, to get a sense of Most chronic diseases (e.g.,
the prevalence of loneliness when hypertension, coronary artery disease,
assessed as present or absent. Loneliness diabetes) are the result of the interactive
is a common experience; as many as 80 influences of genetic, environmental,
percent of people under 18 years of age and behavioral factors on physiological
and 30 percent of people over 65 years functioning. How do feelings of
of age report being lonely at least loneliness penetrate to a level that affects
sometimes. For most people, feelings of disease risk? Plausible pathways include
loneliness are situational and transient poor health behaviors, stress-related
(e.g., geographic relocation). For as processes, restorative "anti-stress"
many as 15-30% of the general processes, and even differences in
population, however, loneliness is a patterns of gene activity. In general,
chronic state, and it is among these physiological systems exhibit
individuals that loneliness wreaks its redundancies and compensatory
greatest havoc. In a study of children processes that minimize the immediate
followed through young adulthood, health effects of adverse heritable,
those who were highly lonely at each of environmental, and behavioral factors.
three measurement occasions (i.e., However, subtle changes in these
childhood, adolescence, and at 26 years predisease pathways can be detected
of age) exhibited a significantly greater prior to the onset of manifest disease and
number of standard health risks. The may indicate the beginnings of a steeper
chronically lonely individuals were more downward trajectory in resilience?
likely to have higher body mass index Take health behaviors, for
(BMI), elevated blood pressure, higher instance. Major risk factors for disease
levels of total cholesterol, lower levels in Western society include high-caloric,
of "good" HDL cholesterol, greater high-fat diets, and sedentary lifestyles,
concentrations of glycosylated each of which contribute to being
hemoglobin (an index of impaired overweight or obese. Feelings of
glucose metabolism), and poorer loneliness have been associated with
respiratory fitness than those who were greater incidence of these predominantly
lonely at only two or one of the lifestyle risk factors. In a large cross-
measurement occasions? In a study of sectional survey of adults 18 years and
older adults, loneliness predicted older, the lonely group had a higher
mortality over a 3-year period, and mean BMI and a greater proportion of
increased mortality was explained by the overweight/obese individuals than did
fact that lonely individuals had more the nonlonely group. Loneliness has
chronic diseases and functional been associated with lower levels of
limitations.3 Higher rates of mortality in physical activity in every age group from
lonely individuals do not appear to be grade school to middle-age adults. In the
attributable to inadequate healthcare latter study, lonely individuals were also
utilization: even after accounting for the more likely to become inactive over
presence and severity of chronic illness, time. Changes in health status also
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predicted an increased likelihood of engagement. And to add insult to injury,
becoming inactive, but the effects of loneliness increases sensitivity to and
loneliness were independent of changes surveillance for social threats. Anxiety,
in health status. Similarly, individuals low self-esteem, and fear of negative
with fewer social connections (i.e., a evaluation elicit self-defensive behaviors
smaller social network) were less likely and effectively tax cognitive resources
to be physically active, but the effects of that would normally be available to meet
loneliness on physical activity did not the demands of daily life stress. Thus,
depend on the size of the social network. what might naively be thought of as a
The invisible force of loneliness seems circumscribed problem—the feeling of
to play a unique role in this particular loneliness and isolation—may be seen
predisease pathway. by the sufferer as a world of inescapable
Another commonly cited risk threat!
factor for disease is stress. In reality, How might these cognitions and
"stress" refers to a family of predisease perceptions influence physiology and
pathways, each of which may be health? As Berntson shows in his
vulnerable to the influence of lonely chapter, the brain regions involved in
feelings. Loneliness is itself a source of emotional and perceptual processes are
stress, but lonely individuals also differ intimately related to brain regions
in their exposure to stressful events and involved in the regulation of
circumstances. This is less evident in physiological systems. This is
young adults than it is in older adults in particularly evident in alterations of the
whom loneliness was associated with functioning of the cardiovascular system
having experienced a greater number of in lonely individuals. In young adults,
stressful life events in the past year (e.g., this alteration is apparent in increased
death in the family, marital crisis, resistance to blood flow in small arteries
change in employment status) and more throughout the body. Increased vascular
sources of chronic stress (e.g., resistance is a precursor and
employment stress, marital stress).6 In predominant contributor to age-related
addition, lonely individuals perceive life increases in systolic blood pressure
as more stressful and less gratifying than (SBP), a major risk factor for
their socially connected counterparts, cardiovascular disease. In middle-aged
even when objective indications are that adults, SBP is significantly higher in
lonely and nonlonely individuals do not lonely adults than in their nonlonely
differ in the types of activities and counterparts. Moreover, loneliness
behaviors they engage in on a daily accelerates the rate of increases in SBP,"
basis. Good quality social interactions indicating a faster decline in
typically ameliorate feelings of stress, physiological resilience and a heightened
but because lonely people perceive their risk for chronic cardiovascular disease.
interactions to be less positive than those It's as though loneliness accelerates the
of nonlonely people, they fail to derive aging process.
the same benefit. Good coping strategies By virtue of extensive
can also ameliorate feelings of stress, but interconnections among the brain,
lonely individuals are more likely to peripheral nervous systems, and
respond to stress with pessimism and endocrine glands, the feelings of
avoidance than with optimism and active isolation and loneliness have a broad and
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deep reach. The hypothalamus plays a that loneliness is associated with
key role in enabling communication increased risk of chronic conditions that
from brain to periphery. Located in the are characterized by heightened
lower central region of the brain, the inflammation (e.g., atherosclerosis,
hypothalamus receives neural input on elevated cholesterol levels, heart disease,
brain and body states (e.g., pain, diabetes, and even cognitive
sadness, fear, hunger) and in response impairment). If cortisol dampens
signals brain regions that control the inflammation, why might elevated levels
autonomic nervous system and the of cortisol in lonely individuals be
pituitary and adrenal glands. Signals to associated with more rather than less
the autonomic nervous system permit inflammation?
modulation of heart rate, blood pressure, It turns out that communication
and numerous other factors that serve to among the hypothalamus, pituitary
maintain homeostasis. Signals to the gland, and adrenal glands becomes
pituitary gland (located at the base of the dysregulated when chronically
brain, just below the hypothalamus) stimulated. Whereas cortisol effectively
prompt the release of hormones that dampens immune and inflammatory
ultimately permit modulation of almost responses on an acute basis, when
every endocrine gland in the body, circulating cortisol levels are chronically
including the adrenal glands (one is elevated, cells become resistant to its
situated on top of each kidney). The immunosuppressant and anti-
adrenal glands serve many functions, inflammatory effects. This alteration
and one is to produce and secrete happens at the level of DNA where the
cortisol. Cortisol is frequently referred to actions of genes in each cell of our body
as a "stress hormone" because can be turned on (i.e., expressed) or off.
circulating levels increase dramatically Recent evidence suggests that the effects
in response to any stimulus that requires, of loneliness reach down to this level.
or might require, metabolic resources. Circulating leukocytes (white blood
Thus, cortisol increases blood sugar cells) from a small group of chronically
levels, increases blood pressure, and lonely adults showed decreased
reduces immune responses and expression of glucocorticoid response
inflammation (hence the use of cortisone genes relative to expression rates in a
cream or injections to control matched group of socially connected
inflammation of the skin after exposure adults. These genes are important
to poison ivy). This complex web of because they activate the production of
physiological links may seem far proteins that "hear" the anti-
removed from feelings of social inflammatory signal sent by cortisol.
isolation, but loneliness has repeatedly Thus, despite higher levels of circulating
been observed to be a risk factor for cortisol in the lonely group, the cortisol
elevated levels of cortisol, especially in signal may still not be heard. The lonely
the morning. For instance, in middle- group also showed increased expression
aged adults, the more intense the degree of genes carrying pro-inflammatory
of loneliness reported at day's end over elements which, together with reduced
the course of three days in everyday life, expression of glucocorticoid response
the higher the spike in cortisol the genes, provides a functional genomic
subsequent morning. The conundrum is explanation for elevated risk of
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inflammatory disease in individuals who twice as great in lonely than in
experience chronically high levels of nonlonely individuals. In addition,
loneliness.9 loneliness was associated with lower
The effects of loneliness are not cognitive ability at baseline and with a
limited to an increase in health- more rapid decline in cognition during
threatening processes. Loneliness has the 4-year follow-up. Similar results
also been associated with a decrease in were reported for a sample of 75-85-
health-restoring processes. Sleep is the year-old individuals over a 10-year
quintessential example. Much of what follow-up.
feels stressful and depressing at the end The effects of loneliness on
of a long day is perceived differently cognition are evident at an even more
following a good night's sleep. Good fundamental level." Self-regulation, or
quality sleep is the clincher. Lonely and the ability to regulate one's attention,
non-lonely individuals do not differ in cognition, emotion, and/or behavior to
the amount of sleep they get, but lonely better meet social standards or personal
people have poorer sleep quality than do goals, is impaired in lonely individuals.
non-lonely people. They experience For instance, among young adults,
more micro-awakenings during the night instructions to shift auditory attention
and they awake feeling more tired and from the dominant right ear to the non-
less capable of meeting the demands of dominant left ear resulted in impaired
the day. Poor sleep has been associated performance in lonely relative to
with elevated blood pressure and nonlonely individuals. Loneliness also
cardiovascular mortality, and this may alters emotion regulation. In middle-
help to explain the poorer health aged and older adults, loneliness was
outcomes of chronically lonely associated with a diminished tendency to
individuals. In short, lonely days extend capitalize on positive emotions, and this
into the nights and lessen the restorative explained why lonely individuals were
nature of sleep. less likely than nonlonely individuals to
Loneliness and I Icalt h: It's Not Just engage in physical activity. Impaired
Peripheral cognitive regulation is evident in
From this sampling of the experimental studies that manipulate
widespread effects of loneliness on feelings of isolation. Participants who
health, lifestyle behaviors, physiological receive feedback that induces a sense
functioning, genetic transcription, and that they are doomed to a future of social
sleep quality, it should be clear that the isolation perform significantly worse on
invisible power of felt isolation has long tests of reasoning, behave more
tentacles that have the potential to aggressively, and choose more tasty but
influence all of physiology. Not only unhealthy foods than other participants
physical health, but also cognitive health who receive feedback indicating a future
is compromised. Indeed, one of the most of social connection or bad feedback of a
sobering findings of recent years is that non-social nature, namely that their
loneliness places people at risk for future will consist of general
impaired cognition and dementia.10 In a misfortune.12 There seems to be
4-year prospective study of initially something uniquely threatening about
dementia-free older adults, the risk of the prospect, and the reality, of feeling
Alzheimer's Disease was more than
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isolated, disconnected, and like one ensues from happiness is also apparent
doesn't belong. in the effects of happiness on income.
In terms of emotional health, the Happiness predicted increases in
prospect for lonely people is increasing household income over a 2-year period
misery, at least over the short term. in middle-aged adults. However,
Loneliness and depressed affect tend to relationship satisfaction also predicted
be thought of as synonymous, but the increases in household income over this
two are conceptually and empirically time period and, remarkably,
distinct. If loneliness and depression relationship satisfaction helped to
were synonymous, increases in explain the effect of happiness on
loneliness would have no capacity to income. It seems that happy people
predict increases in depressive experience increases in income in part
symptoms because increases in one because of the general good will that
would be exactly paralleled by increases surrounds the socially contented
in the other. Instead, longitudinal data individual and that elicits tangible and
have shown that loneliness predicts an intangible positivity from others.
increase in depressive symptoms but It is perhaps precisely because
depressive symptoms do not predict an most people feel socially connected and
increase in loneliness over a one-year happy that we take for granted the
interval." Importantly, the influence of invisible force of social connectedness
loneliness on depressive symptoms was and its stabilizing and nurturing
not attributable to fewer social influence in all aspects of life. Only in
connections, general negativity, stress, its absence do we begin to comprehend
or poor social support. These data its power. Western notions of the
suggest that the relevant intervention autonomous individual notwithstanding,
target is loneliness, and that modifying human beings are "wired" for social
the cognitions, perceptions, and connections and need social bonds to
expectations of the lonely individual feel safe, valued, motivated, and
could help improve quality of life and competent.14 Among the lamentations
overall well-being. expressed by some in Western societies
Social Connectedness: Invisible Forces is a concern that our autonomy and
Made Visible independence come at the expense of
At this juncture, having become meaningful social relationships and a
acquainted with the burden of loneliness, sense of belonging to a larger social unit.
it is helpful to remember that most Family members are no longer
people, most of the time, feel socially obligatorily part of our social
connected. They derive satisfaction and community, while Facebook friends,
meaning from their social relationships, some of whom we know only through
and this makes them happier and more electronic media, are deemed essential to
satisfied with life. Interestingly, fulfilling our need for a sense of
happiness leads to higher levels of connectedness and belonging.15 The
relationship satisfaction, indicating that broadening of our social worlds has not
happiness and relationship satisfaction been accompanied by maintenance,
feed forward to foster spirals of much less improvement, of the quality of
increasing happiness and relationship our social relationships. One national
satisfaction. The general positivity that study showed a threefold increase
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between 1985 and 2004 in the number of New York: HarperCollins
Americans who reported no one with Publishers.
whom to discuss important matters.16 2. Caspi, A., Harrington, H.,
We are a meaning-making species, and Moffitt, T.E., Milne, B.J., &
relationships that offer security, comfort, Poulton, R. (2006). Socially
trust, and pleasure, even if interactions isolated children 20 years later.
are relatively infrequent, are much more Archives of Pediatric Adolescent
effective at fostering a sense of Medicine, 160, 805-811.
connectedness and belonging than are 3. Sugisawa, H., Liang, J., & Liu,
more friends or more frequent X. (1994). Social networks,
interactions that fail to meet these social support, and mortality
standards. The challenge, especially for among older people in Japan.
those of us who live in Western society, Journal of Gerontology, 49, S3-
is to recognize that the invisible force of 13.
social connectedness has benefits for 4. Cheng, S. (1992). Loneliness-
health and well-being that we ignore at distress and physician utilization
our peril. in well-elderly females. Journal
Conclusion of Community Psychology, 20,
The research on loneliness 43-56; Geller, J., Janson, P.,
highlights the need for and benefits of McGovern, E., & Valdini, A.
human connections, but it speaks even (1999). Loneliness as a predictor
more directly to the role of beliefs about of hospital emergency
our connections. Loneliness, after all, is department use. The Journal of
not about how many social relationships Family Practice, 48, 801-804.
a person has, but is about a belief that 5. Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J.
the existing social relationships fail to T. (2007). Aging and loneliness:
satisfy a desired sense of social Downhill quickly? Current
connectedness. All human relationships Directions in Psychological
have a tangible existence in physical Science, 16, 187-191.
interactions and an invisible existence in 6. Hawkley, L. C., Hughes, M. E.,
mental representations and beliefs. This Waite, L., J., Masi, C. M.,
human capacity expands the range of Thisted, R. A., & Cacioppo, J. T.
possible relationships. For instance, (2008). From social structural
humans form meaningful connections factors to perceptions of
with pets, with television characters relationship quality and
whom they have never met, and with loneliness: The Chicago Health,
deities who lack a material existence. Aging, and Social Relations
We have seen the health impact of the Study. Journal of Gerontology:
invisible force of loneliness; do different Social Sciences, 638, 5375-5384.
kinds of invisible forces have different 7. Cacioppo, J. T., & Patrick, B.
effects? (2008). Loneliness: Human
References nature and the needf or social
1. Buechner, F. (1977). Telling the connection. New York: W. W.
Truth: The Gospel as Tragedy, Norton & Company.
Comedy, and Fairy Tale (p. 3). 8. Hawkley, L. C., Misted, R. A.,
Masi, C. M., & Cacioppo, J. T.
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(under review). Loneliness 14. Dunbar, R. 1. M., & Shultz, S.
predicts increased blood (2007). Evolution in the social
pressure: Five-year cross-lagged brain. Science, 317, 1344-1347.
analyses in middle-aged and 15. Pappano, L. (2001). The
older adults. Connection Gap: Why Americans
9. Cole, S. W., Hawkley, L. C., Feel So Alone. Piscataway, NJ:
Arevalo, J. M., Sung, C. Y., Rutgers University Press.
Rose, R. M., & Cacioppo, J. T. 16. McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L.,
(2007). Social regulation of gene & Brashears, M. T. (2006).
expression in humans: Social isolation in America:
Glucocorticoid resistance in the Changes in core discussion
leukocyte transcriptome. Genonte networks over two decades.
Biology, 8, R189.1-R189.13. American Sociological Review,
10. Wilson, R. S., Krueger, K. R., 71,353-375.
Arnold, S. E., Schneider, J. A.,
Kelly, J. F., Barnes, L. L., et al.
(2007). Loneliness and risk of
Alzheimer's disease. Archives of
General Psychiatry, 64, 234-
240.
11. Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L.
C. (2009). Perceived social
isolation and cognition. Trends in
Cognitive Science, 13, 447-454.
12. Baumeister, R.F., DeWall, C. N.,
Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M.
(2005). Social exclusion impairs
self-regulation. Journal of
Personality & Social Psychology,
88, 589-604; Twenge, J.M.,
Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., &
Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can't
join them, beat them: Effects of
social exclusion on aggressive
behavior. Journal ofP ersonality
& Social Psychology, 81, 1058-
1069.
13. Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C.,
& Thisted, R. (2009). Perceived
social isolation makes me sad:
Five year cross-lagged analyses
of loneliness and depressive
symptomatology in the Chicago
Health, Aging, and Social
Relations Study. Psychology and
Aging, in press.
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From Relationships to People and
Groups to Relationships with God
The extent and quality of our
social connections can have profound
consequences for our physical well-
being. In her essay, Louise Hawkley
explores in particular the consequences
that feelings of inadequate social
connection have on such physical
outcomes as sleep quality, high blood
pressure, reduced ability to respond to
inflammation, cognitive health in aging,
and cardiovascular health. While
Hawkley emphasizes the relationship
between the invisible forces of social
connection and health and the biological
mechanisms responsible for this
relationship, Gary Bemtson takes things
one step further by exploring a person's
perceived connection with God and its
effects on our basic biological systems.
Many of our basic biological processes,
such as breathing or maintaining
sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate
the brain, are reflexes that are so
automatic that they become invisible to
us. Bemtson shows that thoughts and
beliefs alter not only behaviors, but also
the regulation of these reflex-like
mechanisms. And he suggests that the
root of these effects may lie in the way
that humans and other animals maintain
biological equilibrium with regulatory
mechanisms that, under ordinary
circumstances, keep each other in check.
This theory describes a biological
mechanism that could explain why
spirituality is associated with generally
better health.
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understanding. We consider the most
common of these to be empirically
1=7-- ela `ss pirituality Inv
ygcrpistt--,15,-, --assurrc ontrolfra acquired, learned facts, relations,
sirpiramriathigitradd _ associations, and perceptual and motor
skills. Such learned associations serve as
—syYfirat 0er•
i tiele4 01111 powerful determinants of thought and
behavior. But other sources of
heaititter
information and knowledge also affect
our interaction with the environment,
Chapter 55 including reflex-like (constitutionally
Psychosomatic Relations: From endowed) circuits that are independent
Superstition to Mortality of explicit teaming. Examples include
central networks for pain withdrawal,
People have many sources of
hunger circuits for the ingestion of
information, knowledge and
essential nutrients, social affiliation
networks, and neural systems that
s
The lead author is Gary G. Benison, Ph.D., a promote maternal bonding. Each of
Professor of Psychology, Psychiatry and these sources of information or
Pediatrics and a member of the Neurosciences
knowledge can impact thoughts and
Graduate Faculty at the Ohio State University.
beliefs, and thoughts and beliefs can
He is a co-founder (with John Cacioppo) of the
impact behaviors and other bodily
field of social neuroscience, is a co-editor of the
Handbook of Psychophysiology and the functions.
Handbook of Neuroscience for the Behavioral
"...a Maori woman who,
Sciences, and is the President of the Society for
having eaten somc fruit, was told that it
Psychophysiological Research. Benison's
had been taken
research focuses on the evolutionary
development of the neuraxis, with special regard from a tabooed place; she
to levels of organization in neurobehavioral exclaimed that the sanctity of the chief
systems, affective processes and autonomic had been profaned
regulation. He has published over 200 articles in
and that his spirit would kill
scientific outlets and six books.
her ... the next day ... she was
Benison begins with the fact that
dead.11)
knowledge, thoughts and beliefs can influence
our behaviors. Behaviors, of course, are
physiological processes entailing neural
"I have seen a strong young
operations and muscular actions. Here we see a
man die .... the same day he was tapued
clear intersection between the psychological
domain on the one hand (knowledge, thoughts (tabooed); the victims die
and beliefs) and the physical domain under it as though their strength ran out
(neuromuscular effector systems) on the other. as water... "( I )
But mind-body relations extend beyond the
observable actions or skeletal muscles. The mind A superstition is a belief, based
and its organ, the brain, also impact powerfully not on reason or knowledge, but on
on internal bodily functions associated with the legend, magical thinking, or other non-
autonomic nervous system, the endocrine
rational basis. Beliefs color the way we
system, and the immune system, to name just a
perceive the world, they direct and shape
few. Through these interactions, psychological
our actions, and define our personalities.
processes can be translated in outcomes that have
powerful significance for adaptation and health. Beliefs are powerful determinants of
Benison explores the processes by which action. A useful illustration of the power
thoughts can manifest in fundamental changes in
of beliefs comes from the parable of the
internal physiology and health.
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Sultan (who had studied psychology) Power of Beliefs
and his "lie-detecting" donkey. Lore has
Beliefs may be potent
it that the Sultan was missing a valuable
determinants of behavior, but can they
vase from his estate and suspected that
kill? And if so, how? How can these
one of his servants had stolen the piece.
invisible, intangible entities impact
To identify the culprit, the Sultan
health? In a now classic article published
gathered his servants in front of a dark
in the American Anthropologist in 1942,
room in which a donkey was tied, and
Walter Cannon, a leading Harvard
then asked each of his servants if they
physiologist and expert on the
had stolen the item. Each said "no". The
autonomic nervous system, proposed an
Sultan explained that inside the room
answer (1). Investigating phenomena
was a magical donkey, specially trained
such as voodoo practices of the Haitians
to detect liars, who would bray when
and "bone-pointing" among Australian
slapped by someone who had lied. The
aborigines, Cannon found a common
servants were sent into the room, one by
feature among the victims of such rituals
one, and were instructed to close the
was a strong belief in the curse and an
door, slap the donkey and return. "When
associated morbid fear of the outcome.
the donkey brays," the Sultan
That fear, he argued, could trigger a
proclaimed, "I will have my culprit".
"fight-or-flight reaction" (a phrase he
The first servant was sent into the room
had earlier coined), characterized by
and returned shortly thereafter—
powerful and exaggerated activation of
tremendously relieved as the donkey had
the sympathetic nervous system. The
not brayed. One by one, the remaining
resulting vascular constriction
servants entered the room and returned.
diminishes blood flow to critical tissues
The donkey had not brayed and all the
(i.e., ischemia), with consequent hypoxia
servants looked quite relaxed. The
(decreased oxygen) and disturbances in
Sultan was sanguine -- he knew this
normal metabolism and cellular
donkey never brayed under any
function. These reactions may be
circumstances. The Sultan asked the
exacerbated by the lack of food and
servants to show him their hands. He
water as the victim "pines away."
then pointed to one of them and declared
Cannon argued that these reactions could
"we have our thief," instructing the
become life-threatening—fulfilling the
guards to take him away. How had he
gruesome legacy of the ritual—based on
identified the culprit? Rather than
a belief in the supernatural, the veracity
relying on a magical donkey, the Sultan,
of which is largely irrelevant. More
who recall was a student of psychology,
relevant is the emotion triggered by the
took a more rational approach.
belief, specious as it may be.
Understanding the impact of beliefs on
behavior, the Sultan had surreptitiously Beliefs and emotions have
infiltrated powdered charcoal into the consequences, both behavioral and
donkey's hair. When the servants physiological. A recent example comes
slapped the donkey, the charcoal marked from the contemporary medical
their hands—with the exception of the literature. There is now a well-
guilty servant who had not slapped the documented condition, sometimes
donkey, out of a belief and associated triggered by something as innocuous as a
fear that the donkey could detect a liar! spousal argument or a surprise birthday
party, which entails the hallmark clinical
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and physiological features of a heart for cold sores (HSV type I) and genital
attack, including chest pain, herpes (HSV type II). Once contracted,
abnormalities on the electrocardiogram, herpes virus infections generally remain
and elevated cardiac enzymes (reflecting for life, although they are characterized
damaged heart muscle) (2). The by periodic eruptions and remissions.
condition has variously been termed During the latter, the immune system
takotsubo cardiomyopathy, left- effectively dampens viral activity and
ventricular apical ballooning, the virus retreat to a more or less
myocardial stunning, stress dormant state. Although multiple factors
cardiontyopailty, or in the more likely contribute to the reactivation of
vernacular parlance of the New York HSV, one trigger appears to be stress—
Times, broken heart syndrome the defacing cold sore that erupts, for
(prompted by a medical review that was example, just before the prom or an
published just before Valentine's Day). important date. Ohio State researchers
In general accord with the speculation of sought an animal model of this
Cannon, broken heart syndrome appears reactivation, so the underlying links and
to be triggered by an exaggerated mediators could be studied. Try as they
autonomic nervous system response, might, however, the research group was
characterized by sympathetic activation unable to reactivate HSV infections in
and high levels of the stress hormone mice with standard laboratory stressors,
epinephrine (adrenalin) (3). It is such as restraint-stress or shock. In a
important to note in these cases that collaborative effort, we pointed out that
psychological states, as mild as they may the stressors that lead to HSV
be, are able to induce a clear and reactivation in humans were often of a
demonstrable organ pathology. social nature. indeed, for both humans
and mice, social relations are central to
Physiological abnormalities or
happiness, adaptation and even survival.
dysfunctions underlie medical
In light of this, a social stressor was
conditions, and indeed, constitute the
introduced into the project (changing the
defining features of disease states. An
housing groupings and thus disrupting
important question, however, is how
established social relations). The social
those dysfunctions come to be. There are
stress, but again not physical stressors,
many ways in which disease develops —
resulted in significant HSV reactivation
traumatic injuries, biotic infections,
(4). Psychological factors, and in this
degenerative conditions — and the list
case a specific social psychological
goes on. The fields of psychophysiology,
variable, uniquely impacted an important
psychosomatic or behavioral medicine,
aspect of viral immunity. This early
and health psychology arc particularly
finding led to a series of studies that
concerned with how psychological and
have elucidated physiological pathways
behavioral factors impact physiological
that mediate the relationship between
systems and thus health. Of particular
social stress, immune function and HSV
interest are those psychological
reactivation. But, what is it that makes
dimensions that uniquely impact
social stress unique and distinct from
physiology.
physical stressors?
An example comes from the
We have identified a probable
study of Herpes Simplex viral infections.
general contributor to the differences
Herpes Simplex viruses are responsible
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between lower-level physical or such as a decrease in blood pressure and
homeostatic challenges and higher-level compromised circulation.
psychological and social stressors. Basic
Although this reciprocal mode of
homeostatic reflexes, reflexes that keep
regulation of the autonomic branches has
in balance various critical bodily
considerable utility, and is characteristic
processes such as blood pressure, body
of basic reflex organizations, it may not
temperature, and blood sugar, are largely
always be optimal. The autonomic
hard-wired and organized at relatively
nervous system provides the basic
low levels of the nervous system, such as
support for action and adjustment, and
the brainstem and spinal cord. An
although it figures prominently in
example comes from autonomic nervous
survival related functions, it also
system regulation of cardiovascular
provides the basic visceral support for
function. The sympathetic division of the
emotional and cognitive operations as
autonomic nervous system is an
well. It has long been recognized that
activational, energy mobilization system
cognitively demanding tasks elicit
that comes into play in the face of
greater autonomic activation than is
adaptive challenges. Sympathetic
needed to meet the metabolic demands
activation increases heart rate and results
of the tasks. Moreover, ascending neural
in peripheral vasoconstriction, both of
signals to the brain from visceral organs
which tend to increase blood pressure. In
such as the heart and blood vessels serve
contrast, the parasympathetic division is
to modulate and regulate cognitive
an energy-conserving, deactivational
activities (5). The notable early
brake that generally opposes the
psychologist, William James, proposed
sympathetic system, yielding decreases
that emotion is the experience of
in heart rate and blood pressure. The
somatovisccral sensory feedback. James
baroreceptor heart rate reflex is a
suggested that we do not run from the
homeostatic reflex that functions to
bear because we are afraid, but rather we
maintain blood pressure within
are afraid because we run from the bear
homeostatic limits. Unique pressure
(6). Although the strong form of this
sensitive receptors in the heart and large
theory has not been supported, it remains
arteries detect changes in blood pressure,
the case that ascending visceral signals
and a decrease in blood pressure triggers
can modulate learning, attention, and
the baroreceptor heart rate reflex,
cortical/cognitive processing (5). The
increasing sympathetic activity and
autonomic nervous system is not only
reciprocally decreasing parasympathetic
for lower level reflexive adjustments.
tone. Both effects serve to increase heart
Indeed, it is increasingly recognized that
rate (and thus cardiac output) and
there is a highly complex, even intricate,
constrict arteries throughout the body,
interaction between the autonomic
thereby restoring the pressure
nervous system and higher level brain
perturbation. In basic reflexes, the two
structures (e.g., frontal cortex) involved
autonomic branches are generally
in human behavior. Importantly, these
regulated in this reciprocal fashion, and
circuits and their interactions with the
thus synergistically amplify the effects
autonomic nervous system are highly
of the other. This is a useful mechanism
flexible and are not constrained by the
to adjust to severe adaptive challenges
simple organization rules that govern
basal functions such as homeostasis and
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reciprocal control of the autonomic of demographics, health behaviors, body
branches. Rather, higher level systems mass index, blood pressure, and other
engage in highly sophisticated "banter" potential explanatory factors. Short of
with the autonomic nervous system. divine intervention, was there a rational
explanation for this relationship? We
In contrast to the reciprocal
certainly know that psychological factors
control characteristic of autonomic
can impact autonomic control, among
reflexes, higher level brain circuits exert
other aspects of physiology.
more flexible control over the autonomic
nervous system. This can include the As considered above, when
classic reciprocal control pattern, but can extreme or prolonged, sympathetic
also include an independent control activation may have harmful
pattern in which only the sympathetic consequences. Heightened sympathetic
branch or only the parasympathetic activation is known, for example, to
branch of the autonomic nervous system predict a poorer outcome after heart
is activated, and a coactive control attack. In contrast, parasympathetic
pattern in which both branches are activity may have beneficial or
activated. This greater flexibility in protective effects. From the perspective
control may have behavioral and health of a reciprocal model of autonomic
significance. control, high parasympathetic/low
sympathetic control would be optimal
Beliefs about One's Relationship with
whereas high sympathetic/low
God and Autonomic Functioning
parasympathetic control would be
Recently, we used a population- considered a risk. But we also know that
based sample of 50-68-year-old adults in higher level neurobehavioral systems
the Chicago Health, Aging and Social may not be constrained to reciprocal
Relations Study to examine risk factors autonomic controls. Moreover, it has
for heart attack, a health outcome known been argued that more autonomic control
to be influenced the autonomic nervous is better than little control, in that if
system. We were particularly interested affords greater capacity for adjustment
in whether spirituality influenced risk for of visceral functions. Could high levels
heart attack. With very few exceptions, of parasympathetic control, for example,
everyone in our sample expressed a mitigate the negative effects of
belief in God. However, individuals sympathetic activation and perhaps yield
differed in how they perceived the an even more advantageous health
quality of their relationship with God, outcome?
much as individuals differ in how they
To examine these questions. we
perceive the quality of their relationships
developed two quantitative measures of
with other people. We defined
autonomic control (7). The first was a
spirituality as the degree to which a
common metric of autonomic balance
personal relationship with God was
(Cardiac Autonomic Balance), which
believed to offer safety, security,
represents the relative dominance of the
contentment, and love. One observation
two branches along a single autonomic
that emerged from this study was that
continuum that ranges from purely
spirituality was associated with a lower
parasympathetic control to purely
incidence of heart attack (7). This
sympathetic control. This metric is
remained true after ruling out the effects
consistent with the classical model of
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reciprocal control, characteristic of status and was associated with a lower
reflex processes, where autonomic incidence of heart attack. Participants
balance can be biased toward one or the who had low Cardiac Autonomic
other of the autonomic branches. High Regulation were more likely to have
scores indicate sympathetic dominance suffered from a heart attack.
and low scores parasympathetic
Could higher Cardiac Autonomic
dominance. Independent estimates of
Regulation scores explain why
sympathetic and parasympathetic control
spirituality was associated with less risk
were obtained using standard
for heart attack? That is, could a pattern
measurement procedures, and the level
of autonomic regulation associated with
of parasympathetic control was
spirituality explain the link between
subtracted from sympathetic control to
spirituality and heart attack? In order to
derive a measure of Cardiac Autonomic
address this question, we conducted
Balance. A second metric was designed
statistical tests of these linkages. As we
to capture an alternative mode of
already knew, both spirituality and
autonomic control (Cardiac Autonomic
Cardiac Autonomic Regulation are
Regulation) that assesses the degree of
associated with a lower incidence of
relative coactivation (rather than
heart attack. When the predictive effects
reciprocal activation) of both branches.
of spirituality were statistically
This is a metric that taps into the non-
extracted, Cardiac Autonomic
reciprocal regulatory influences of
Regulation continued to be a significant
higher neural structures. Cardiac
predictor of a lower incidence of heart
Autonomic Regulation scores were
attack. However, when the linkage test
derived by essentially summing
was reversed and the effects of Cardiac
activities of the sympathetic and
Autonomic Regulation were extracted,
parasympathetic branches to afford a
spirituality was no longer a significant
measure of total overall autonomic
predictor. This indicates that Cardiac
cardiac control. High scores indicate
Autonomic Regulation is a plausible
high activation and low scores indicate
mediator that may explain the
low activation of both branches of the
relationship between spirituality and
autonomic nervous system.
heart attack.
In the 50-68-year-old adults in
By capturing higher levels of
our sample, spirituality was found to be
parasympathetic control and the
associated not only with a lower
associated autonomic coactivation of the
incidence of heart attack, but a higher
sympathetic and parasympathetic
level of Cardiac Autonomic Regulation.
branches, Cardiac Autonomic
That is, people who felt closer in their
Regulation provided a critical metric that
relationship with God exhibited higher
permitted the study of a previously
overall autonomic regulation—both
"invisible" and mysterious link between
sympathetic and parasympathetic. This
spirituality and health outcomes. This in
was associated, in part, with lesser
no way diminishes the relationship
diminution of parasympathetic control
between spirituality and health, but
and a greater degree of coactivation.
rather offers an important hypothesis as
Moreover, Cardiac Autonomic
to how spirituality may impact
Regulation (but not Cardiac Autonomic
physiology and health status. Spirituality
Balance) predicted better overall health
reflects an important aspect of the
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general domain of sociality and social 2. Wittstein, I.S. (2007). The broken
relationships, a domain heavily heart syndrome. Cleve Clin JM ed, 74,
influenced by our genetic constitution as Suppl 1, S17-22.
a social species. Indeed, the importance
3. Wittstein, Thiemann, D.R., Lima,
of sociality may be more related to
J.A., Baughman, K.L., Schulman, S.P.,
beliefs and aftitudes about the
Gerstenblith, G., Wu, K.C., Rade, J.J.,
meaningfulness of relationships than
Bivalacqua, T.J., & Champion, H.C.
their existence or number. And again,
(2005). Neurohumoral features of
beliefs about social relationships also
myocardial stunning due to sudden
have real consequences.
emotional stress. NE ngl JM ed, 352,
Conclusion 539-48.
Beliefs impact thoughts and 4. Padgett, D. A., Sheridan, J. F., Dome,
actions. This may be reflected in J., Berntson, G. G., Candelora, J., &
phenomena as diverse as biasing a Glaser, R. (1998). Social stress and the
behavioral disposition (such as slapping reactivation of latent herpes simplex
a donkey), coloring our perception of the virus-type I. Proceedings oft he
environment, or determining how we National Academy ofS ciences, 95, 7231-
perceive the quality of our social 7235.
(including spiritual) relations.
5. Bemtson, G. G., Sarter, M. &
Psychology can also impact physiology,
Cacioppo, J. T. (2003). Ascending
and physiology, in turn, can influence
visceral regulation of cortical affective
our thoughts and emotions.
information processing. European
Psychophysiology is the study of these
Journal ofN euroscience, 18, 2103-2109.
relationships, and promises to illuminate
the intricacies of psychosomatic 6. James, W. (1884). What is an
relations and the heretofore "invisible" emotion? Mind, 9, 188-205.
mechanisms that mediate these links.
7. Berntson, G. G., Norman. G.,
The relations between the mind and the
Hawkley, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2008).
body, the so-called mind-body problem,
Spirituality and autonomic
arc complex and still rather obscure.
cardiovascular control. Annals of
Nevertheless, the mind-body problem is
Behavioral Medicine, 35, 198-208.
yielding to science, and the problem it
8. Bemtson, G. G., Norman, G. J.,
poses is progressively diminishing.
Hawkley, L. C. & Cacioppo, J. T.
Among the components of the mind-
(2008). Cardiac Autonomic Balance vs.
body problem yielding to rigorous
Cardiac Regulatory Capacity.
scientific inquiry are the effects of
Psychophysiology, 45, 643-652.
spiritual beliefs including feelings of
closeness to God.
References
1. Cannon, W.B. (1942). "Voodoo"
death. American Anthropologist, 44
(new series), 169-181.
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the supra-individual source can be
The Mind and Body Are One
explained as shared motor
The Cartesian view of the mind representations and ongoing monitoring
as distinct from the body persists in of observed actions that, under certain
twenty-first century discourse as the conditions, lead to dissolution of the
mind-body problem alluded to by Gary boundary between self and other. The
Bemtson. Berntson provides evidence resulting shared experience of unity and
that the mind and the body, psychology collective identity may feel
and physiology, are not independent of transcendental, but the mechanisms are
each other but represent different levels as real and explicable as those governing
of organization of human organisms. individual behaviors and experiences.
Beliefs influence thoughts, behaviors,
and physiology, and peripheral
physiological processes signal central
neural networks that influence
cognitions and feelings crucial for the
generation and moderation of beliefs.
Spiritual beliefs are considered by some
to be contentious candidates for
scientific examination, yet Berntson
argues that spiritual beliefs can be
identified, measured, and subjected to
scientific investigation in the same
fashion as any other belief or invisible
force. Accordingly, Berntson examines
the effects of a specific spiritual belief—
the belief that one has a close personal
relationship with God. As documented
by Bemtson, this belief is associated
with rather profound physiological and
health effects.
Whereas Bemtson focuses on the
influence of the mind es the body and
vice versa, Gun Semin speaks of the
mind in the body and, more specifically,
in several bodies simultaneously. In his
social cognition model, Semin
challenges the limits of individual social
cognition and argues that regulation and
co-regulation of social behavior are
distributed across brains. When several
individuals exhibit spontaneous
synchronized behaviors (e.g., hand-
clapping), the human tendency is to
invoke a "supra-individual" explanation.
Semin describes a mechanism by which
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individual within the group, the group
1•—•-• beluZe-thi
i... 11—_,,hiayt lfir t seems to be an entity of its own and the
if hi Mier flp
individual soldier seems to have become
eirizestyiritlivta latOrna.
7
1,0:;ateanTif
isltlit 'tor
a cog in the social machine. Mob
behavior, crowds at sporting events, and
soldiers in formation all suggest that
71-11Albliatilit1
ti when we are organized to act together,
the group becomes an emergent entity
Chapter 66 that can submerge the sense of the
individual self. This apparent social
The Suspension of Individual
absorption stands in contrast to our
Consciousness and
typical experience of being autonomous,
The Dissolution of Self and Other
self-aware agents in the world. The
Boundaries
dissolution of the boundary between the
When we watch a group of self and the group is one manifestation
soldiers marching in formation, we see of the social brain and the mechanisms
the behavior of the group synchronized. that support our ability to connect with
Although we can make out the others.
Although not everyone has the
6
The lead author is Gun R. Semin, Ph.D., an experience of marching in a band or
Academy Professor, Royal Netherlands running with a mob, most people have
Academy of Arts and Sciences, at Utrecht
been part of an audience at a concert or
University, The Netherlands. He is the founding
play. At the end of a particularly
Scientific Director of the Kurt Lewin Graduate
School , a past president of the European thrilling performance, an audience can
Association of Experimental Social Psychology, be moved spontaneously as a group to
and the Chair of the international Committee of clap wildly. In these situations, we
the Association for Psychological Science.
know the feeling of surging to our feet as
Semin's research is primarily driven by an
a collective, hands clapping and faces
interest in communication, social cognition as
jointly recruited process, and language and the beaming with approval. As the clapping
diverse uses that language can be put to in social blooms, individual clappers merge into a
interaction (ranging from the regulation of synchronized unit.l. 2 Similarly,
prejudice to that of interpersonal relationships)
thousands of individual sports fans have
as well as the embodied grounding of meaning
been observed to stand and raise their
and communication.
A puzzle that has occupied Semin much hands in a synchronized fashion to
of his career is how it is possible to understand produce a collective wave that travels
social behavior by explaining individual around the stadium. In both cases,
processes. Another purzle has been why one
individual people act as a collective unit,
should focus on stills when human behavior is a
a superorganismal structure, with
movie: behavior is self evidently dynamic and
highly responsive to contextual variations. capacities and behaviors beyond the
Finally, Semin has been puzzled by how it is reach of any single individual in the
possible to think that all there might be to group.
psychological processes is some symbolic
computation taking place somewhere between These examples are instances of
the ears. As outlined in this essay, he has come behavioral uniformity in large groups.
to conceptualize the social in terms of jointly
What is distinctive about these examples
recruited processes rather than individual ones,
is that the observed behavioral
social behavior as situated, and psychological
synchrony can be understood in terms of
processes as embodied.
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a shared social goal. Sometimes the goal individual-centered reasons, motives,
is spontaneous as in clapping to intentions, and causes may be at odds
demonstrate appreciation and sometimes with some forms of spontaneously
the goal is imposed by the situation (e.g., synchronized behaviors and group
musicians following a musical score and action.
instructions of a conductor, soldiers
Towards a Biology of Social
marching to the call of a drill sergeant).
Interaction
However, when we behave in synchrony
with others, there is a sense of becoming Consider the perspective of an
part of something larger than ourselves. engaged spectator at a singles tennis
match. Although we may be sifting
To the people engaged in
distant from competitors, if we identify
spontaneously synchronized behavior,
with one of the players we are not
there is a clearly identifiable and
merely passive observers. On the
seemingly individual 'cause' for their
contrary, our observation of the events in
emergent behavior. But when a group
the game can serve to activate some of
shares the same goal—demonstrating
the same neural mechanisms that would
approval—and engages in the same
be active if we were playing the game
action—clapping—the stage is set for
rather than just observing it. We can feel
such behavior to become coordinated
the moves, feel the impetus to defend an
and organized even without an external
attack, and feel the urge to slam the ball
agent (conductor or drill sergeant). How
as if we ourselves are playing, albeit
do those moments of spontaneous social
without actually flailing our arms
aggregation occur? How does the social
around. We may even anticipate a move
brain work to join with others to form
by the opponent and imagine ourselves
the emergent group?
making the potential response. Research
We have begun to understand the over the last I 0 years or so has revealed
underlying dynamics of how and when that our brains can map the movements
such phenomena are likely to occur and of other human beings onto our own
even how such phenomena can be bodies almost as if we were making
potentially engineered. New insights those movements. This ability to put
afforded by developments in social ourselves in another person's shoes
psychology, developmental psychology, makes it possible to identify with either
and social neuroscience have suggested player.
the way in which our brains respond to
By comparison to the audience,
the invisible force of social connection.
consider how this ability can serve us as
These scientific developments suggest
one of the players. This capacity
neural mechanisms that may be
provides an important facility for
important to the way we interact with
anticipating our opponent's moves
others. At the same time, the insights
allowing us to plan a response even
also reveal the likely conditions under
before the opponent has completed a
which individual self merges into the
groundstroke. This kind of anticipation
group. Such situations when the sense of
does not depend on explicit reasoning or
self is suspended contrast sharply with
conscious reflection—it seems to operate
the modern Western notion of the
as an automatic mechanism 3'4. This
individual standing apart from others.
kind of mechanism may facilitate
Indeed, the traditional Western focus on
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understanding the behavior of others. If the social brain includes monitoring and
your brain mirrors the neural activity in motor systems that function in parallel.
the brain of someone you see acting, this The mirror system puts the player in the
could provide a basis for understanding opponent's shoes and monitors the
the motivation for the action. If your opponent's actions in an anticipatory
brain resonates to the observed action as manner. Other parts of the social brain
if you were acting, this could call to maintain the distinction between player
mind previous experiences acting that and opponent by shaping the
way providing a memory for why you implementation of one's actions, namely
acted that way. That is, our social brain by engaging a counteraction.
may directly resonate to the actions of
In sum, a tennis game or any
others without reasoning explicitly about
social interaction depends on a complex
those actions. This kind of mechanism,
network of brain regions that mediate
through which intentions might be
perception and action, and the
inferred, could then prepare responses
relationship between observed action
quickly to facilitate the smooth flow of
and one's own behavior. The overlap in
social interactions whether in a game or
brain regions responsible for these two
a dialogue. Of course, a critical aspect
important social functions suggests how
of such a mechanism is to differentiate
tightly coupled and coordinated social
our resonance to other people's actions
interactions can be. However, these two
and the control of our own. This kind
systems cannot operate in isolation from
of neural system for mapping the actions
our knowledge of the context in which
and intentions of others has been
behavior occurs. We, therefore, turn to
identified with a network of regions
this topic next.
called the mirror neuron system 3, and
this system may help to induce a degree The Social Context
of reflexive similarity or identification
In a tennis game or any social
between self and other. The mirror
interaction (e.g., dancing, conversation),
neuron system appears to be
the behavior of one individual
continuously engaged unless it is
constitutes a stimulus for others. If a
actively suppressed by inhibition, so that
behavior is meaningful, then neural
this system may continuous monitor the
mechanisms responsible for social
behavior of `others' in our social
perception and social interaction are
environment.
likely to be activated to engage in
Of course, mapping the complementary action. In a competitive
movements of the opponent is useful, context, such as the tennis game, the
but certainly not sufficient to defend our motor system is engaged in the
position, score a point, or win a match. preparation and execution of
One needs to execute countermoves. complementary actions to those
This is the domain of the motor system observed and anticipated based on the
in the brain, which includes regions inferred goals and intentions of the
involved in the preparation and competitor. However, if everyone shares
execution of motor action. The motor the same goal, for example, as in an
system is responsible for the audience clapping, the neural systems
implementation of one's goals and for monitoring the actions of others and
intentions to perform an action°. Thus, executing one's own actions can be
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