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Invisible Forces and Powerful Beliefs:
Gravity, Gods, and Minds
By the
Chicago Social Brain Network
FT Press
Upper Saddle River, NJ
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Invisible Forces and Unseen Powers:
Gravity, Gods, and Minds
Preface this model would work is discussed in
terms of the relation between love and
health in Christian theology - especially
1. Invisible Forces Operating on Human
the tension between the agape, caritas.
Bodies
and eros models of Christian love.
Gravity is an invisible force that holds us
to the surface of the earth, and the fact
The Status of the Body Politic and the
that gravity is invisible does not place it
Status of the Body Itself
beyond scientific scrutiny. Similarly,
humans arc a quintessentially social
species whose need for social connection 4. Health by Connection: From Social
produces invisible forces on our brain, Brains to Resilient Bodies
behavior, and biology that are subject to
Most people feel socially connected most
scientific investigation. Among these are
of the time. Felt connectedness is
forces that compel us to seek trusting and
typically taken for granted. but the
meaningful connections with others and
effects of its absence, as experienced in
to seek meaning and connection with
feelings of isolation, demonstrate that
something bigger than ourselves. The
our evolutionary heritage as a social
story of these invisible forces speaks to
species has potent implications for health
who we are as a species.
and well-being.
From Selfish Genes to Social Brains
From Relationships to People and
Groups to Relationships with God
2. The Social Nature of Humankind
The human brain has evolved under the
5. Psychosomatic Relations: From
guidance of selfish genes to produce
Superstition to Mortality
more than a brain that is capable of
It has long been recognized that mental
powerful, isolated information
states can impact health and well being.
processing operations. The human brain
but the causal pathways have only
also evolved with inherent capacities for
recently begun to be understood.
social cognition, compassion, empathy.
Thoughts, beliefs and attitudes can have
bonding, coordination, cooperation,
powerful effects on physiological
values, mortality and a need for social
connection that extends beyond kin and functions, health and disease. Examples
range from superstitious beliefs
even other individuals.
associated with voodoo, bone pointing,
or other black rituals to the more positive
From Inclusive Fitness to Spiritual
states associated with spirituality. The
Striving
present essay considers these disparate
psychological states and how they might
3. Science, Religion, and a Revised translate into physiological effects
having real health implications.
Religious Humanism
The dialogue between science and
The Mind and Body Are One
religion, if properly pursued, can usher in
a new era of religious humanism in the
leading world religions. Their central 6. The Suspension of Individual
beliefs and practices largely would
Consciousness and the Dissolution of
remain intact, but their views of nature
Self and Other Boundaries
and their concerns with health and well-
A special case of social interaction
being would be refined through their
concerns two or more individuals
conversations with the sciences. How
engaging in temporally coordinated
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actions that imply particular timing of the same or similar actions.
patterns such as synchrony or rhythmic Interestingly, these brain regions in the
turn taking such as applauding in unison human are also responsive to observation
or the 'wave' that is produced by and imitation of facial movements, and
thousands of individual sports fans in a appear to be sensitive to their emotional
stadium. A model to explain such content.
synchronized behavior is proposed in
terms of the neural processes that are Connecting and Binding Social Brains
jointly recruited. One of the main
and Minds
implications suggested by this model is
that taking part in or being part of a
synchronized social interaction gives rise 9. Empathy and Interpersonal Sensitivity
to a qualitative shift in subjective Empathy is thought to play a key role in
experience due to the difficulty of motivating prosocial behavior, guiding
applying an individual centered our preferences and behavioral
explanation to collectively produced responses, and providing the affective
spontaneous co-action. and motivational base for moral
development. While folk conceptions of
empathy view it as the capacity to share,
You and I as One
understand and respond with care to the
affective states of others, neuroscience
7. Action at a Distance: The Invisible
research demonstrates that these
Force of Language components can be dissociated. Empathy
Language forms the fabric of our social is not a unique characteristic of human
institutions and makes tangible the nature consciousness, but it is an important
of our relationships. Although the adaptive behavior that evolved with the
function of language is typically viewed mammalian brain. However, humans arc
in terms of the information content that it special in the sense that high-level
provides, some of the social function of cognitive abilities (language, theory of
language may depend on the way it mind, executive functions) are layered on
affects us. The idea of language impact top of phylogenetically older social and
- how language directly affects our emotional capacities. These higher level
emotions and social connections - may cognitive and social capacities expand
be fundamental to the way the social the range of behaviors that can be driven
brain functions to connect people. by empathy.
Systems and Signals for Social Seeing into My Mind and Other Minds
Coordination 10. Seeing Invisible Minds
Other minds are inherently invisible.
Being able to "see" them requires
8. Hidden Forces in Understanding
learning about other minds, attending to
Others: Mirror Neurons and
other minds, and projecting one's own
Neurobiological Underpinnings mind onto others, and seeing minds in
other agents can mean the difference
Specific brain regions in the monkey between treating others as humans versus
contain individual brain cells, or neurons, as objects.
that respond to both observation and
execution of identical hand and mouth
Inferring Minds When None Can be
actions. Brain imaging in humans has
Seen
demonstrated that our brains have
similarly localized regions with similar
properties. These areas respond to 11. Anthropomorphism: Human
execution of goal-directed actions of the Connection to a Universal Society
hand and mouth and during observation
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The human motivation for social
connection extends beyond the boundary 14. Visible Efforts to Change Invisible
of the human in the (often
Connections
misunderstood) religious language of
Despite the human need for social
anthropomorphism. In this chapter, an
connection, many individuals are lonely
infamous sermon from colonial
because they are unable to create
America—"Sinners in the Hands of an
meaningful social bonds. Interventions
Angry God"—is used to illustrate the
designed to reduce loneliness have not
way anthropomorphic language works to
been successful, suggesting that a better
incorporate human society in a web of
understanding of loneliness, social
ethical obligations that connect to the
connection, and the obstacles to forming
natural environment and, by imaginative
meaningful connections with others is
extension, to the universe as a whole.
needed.
Personifications of God
Reflections on Invisible Connections
12. How Does God Become Real
15. Social Brain, Spiritual Medicine?
Becoming a person of faith is not so
Science and religion are inextricably
much about acquiring certain beliefs
intertwined in the practice of medicine.
but about learning to use one's mind
Science has provided modern medicine
in particular ways; the often intensely
with extraordinary diagnostic and
private experience of God is built therapeutic capacities that can be
through a profoundly social learning employed to care for patients. Religions
process. provide a fuller vision for the worthiness
of caring for the sick, a framework to
guide the application of medical science
Belief and Connection
in that endeavor, and practices that
strengthen the human capacity for
13. Theological Perspectives on God as
treating patients as the mindful persons
an Invisible Force they are.
The beliefs that religious individuals
hold about the way God operates in Invisible Forces
human life are potential factors affecting
perceived social isolation. My paper
16. Epilogue
discusses a specific type of such belief
that is common in the history of Invisible forces that connect individuals
Christian thought: the belief that God is to society, or to each other, have effects
an invisible force of a rather impersonal at both ends of the connection. As
sort working for the good in everything humans we are fundamentally individual
that happens. The paper argues that this and fundamentally social. We
encompass both the pursuit of rational
sort of belief has as great or greater
potential than belief in God as a personal self interest of Homo economicus and the
friend to give one the sense that one is pursuit of approval, belonging, and
intimacy of Homo sodas. the former
never alone, but the conception of God
as pervasive can also lead to inattention grounded in eras, the latter in agape.
and disconnection. These forces acting together represent a
signature feature of Homo sapiens (the
wise ones) and have contributed a record
The Elusiveness of Meaningful
of influence and impact- both positive
Connection
and negative -that is unmatched in
biology.
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For some, science and modernity
belief:len—a Waist
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B, i bo L ,a w il li E - l i 0.1 I w 1 itI -r s i ib T le a 1 i n 11 ( 1 F = ir; - - 1 a - b ' . . . 1 1 Grace. For others, theology and religion
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About six years ago, we had the
opportunity to create a most unusual
Preface
group of scholars to examine questions
We view our past through a about the invisible forces acting on,
reverse telescope, making it seem like within, and between human bodies.
contemporary events are a much larger Superb scholars who individually had
part of our history than they are. made major contributions to their own
Hominids have been estimated to have disciplinary field — fields as divergent as
evolved about 7 million years ago, with neuroscience and medicine to
our species having evolved only within philosophy and theology — were invited
approximately the last 1% of that period. to form an interdisciplinary network of
The human brain was sculpted by scholars to consider such questions. The
evolutionary forces over tens of development of these discussions even
thousands of years, whereas the human over the first few meetings truly
achievements we take for granted, such astonished us all. We decided to share
as civilizations, law, and art, have what we learned through the present
emerged only during the past few book, which represents a different
thousands of years. A mere 300 years perspective, one in which our
ago, theology and philosophy were the understanding of human nature is
principal disciplinary lenses through enriched by serious insights and scrutiny
which the world was viewed, and from that each perspective has to offer.
which explanations and instruction were Theology and religion have always
sought. Advances in science over the relied on unseen forces as the basis for
past 300 years have transformed how we explanations of human behavior and
think, act, and live. Nearly every aspect experience. Science has been able to
of human existence, ranging from explicate those forces even if along
agriculture, commerce, and different lines than originally conceived.
transportation to technology, As we start to consider some of the more
communication, and medicine, has been complex aspects of human nature,
transformed by contemporary science. science and theology may be able to
We have no hesitation to accept work together to shed light on some of
scientific explanations of physical these complexities.
entities being influenced by invisible
We begin this preface and each
forces such as gravity, magnetism, and
chapter with a word cloud produced
genes. But when human mentation and
using Wordle at II. i tilemet.
behavior are the objects to be explained,
In the case of this preface, it illustrates
deterministic scientific accounts seem to
key concepts that are found in this book.
many to be less satisfying.
In the case of the chapters, the word
cloud in each provides a visualization of
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the key terms and ideas expressed in that than it is a march to competence,
chapter. Each chapter, in turn, interdependence, coordination,
represents a contribution led by a cooperation, and social resilience.
particular member to the network but Guiding us through this journey are our
broadened to reflect the interactions of social brains, which have evolved to
the network on that topic. Perusal of the create anything but a blank slate at birth.
word clouds across chapters makes the
We owe a debt of thanks to many
flow of ideas more visible. Together,
for their contributions and support over
the chapters speak to who we are as a
the years, but we owe special thanks to
species and the nature of the invisible
Bamaby Marsh for approaching us with
forces that make us such a unique
the idea of forming such a network and
species. For instance, humans seem to
for his many contributions to the
strive for social connections in a variety
network, and to the John Templeton
of ways from friendships to
Foundation for their support and for their
identification with groups to religious
encouragement to pursue questions,
affiliations. A major thesis of this book
ideas, and conclusions of our science
is that we are fundamentally a social
regardless of where they led.
species, and that this journey is less a
march toward isolation and autonomy
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l' a g e 17
elemental, we will be dealing with an
area of human behavior that has also
f
ikrZttri tfr:ition et— — been addressed for centuries by various
WiundektlanTrgtosinctbeht?,erits—:I
I reed kEntiviekytlirid:,,igund religions. Among these are forces that
itagoistitOrGeS7,ibeireiskierttilc compel us to seek trusting and
fnUi Manilpsocia meaningful connections with others and
tit:11I
sciericeuraYirMi
A g rm to seek meaning and connection with
something larger than ourselves. The
story of these invisible forces speaks to
Chapter 1
who we are and what our potential might
Invisible Forces Operating on I Inman
be as a species. In short, it is the story
Bodies
of the human mind.
The mind can be thought of as
We may believe we know why the structure and processes responsible
we think, feel, and act as we do, but for cognition, emotion, and behavior. It
various forces influence us in ways that is now widely recognized that many
are largely invisible to our senses. structures and processes of the mind
Gravity is an invisible force that holds us operate outside of awareness, with only
to the surface of the earth, and the end products reaching awareness,
magnetism is an invisible force that we and then only sometimes. But clearly we
use in everyday life. The fact that know a great deal about the mind from
gravity and magnetism are invisible to us what we experience through our senses.
does not place them beyond scientific It is just commonsense that we know the
scrutiny. Similarly, there are a host of shape or color of an object from simply
forces that, over the course of human seeing it.
evolution, have emerged to influence our
Or do we? It is obvious that the
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
tops of the tables depicted in the top
Because many of these forces are
panel of Figure I differ in size and
shape. You may be surprised to learn
I The Chicago Social Brain Network is a group that your mind is fooling you, that the
of more than a dozen scholars from the tops of the table are precisely the same
neurosciences, behavioral sciences, social size and shape. If you don't believe it,
sciences, and humanities who share an interest in
trace and cut a piece of paper the size of
who we are as a species and the role of
one table
biological and social factors in the shaping of
individuals, institutions, and societies across top and
human history. then place
The scientists and scholars in the it over the
Network differ in background, epistemologies,
other.
beliefs, and methods. After five years of
Self-
working together, we found a common set of
themes to have emerged in our work despite the evident
differences among us. These themes, which truths can sometimes be absolutely false.
provide a different perspective on how we might
think about human history, experience, and
spirituality, are examined here and explored in
more detail in subsequent chapters.
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The science of the mind is not painful stimulus. Permit a person to
unique in this regard. As the historian cooperate with others, and their brain
Daniel Boorstin (1983, 1) noted: shows the same pattern of activation as
when they are given a rich reward such
Nothing could be more obvious
as delicious food or drink. We may not
than that the earth is stable and
be aware of it, but human evolution has
unmoving, and that we are the
sculpted a human need for social
center of the universe. Modern
connection, along with neural circuits
Western science takes its
and hormonal processes that enable and
beginning from the denial of this
promote communication and connection
commonsense axiom ...
across brains. As we shall see in the
Common sense, the foundation
chapters to follow, our sociality is an
of everyday life, could no longer
important pan of who we are as a
serve for the governance of the
species and it plays an important though
world. When "scientific"
often invisible role in the operations of
knowledge, the sophisticated
our brain and our biology. Among the
product of complicated
questions we examine is whether our
instruments and subtle
social brain also contributes to the
calculations, provided
ubiquitous human quest for spirituality.
unimpeachable truths, things
were no longer as they seemed." The Chicago Social Brain Network
(p. 294)
For hundreds of years, theology
And just as the observation that we roam and philosophy were the hub disciplines
on stable ground led to the incorrect of scholarship, and other fields of
inference that we are the center of the inquiry orbited around this dyad and
universe, so too is the modern notion were tightly constrained by it. Over the
that the human brain is a solitary, past three centuries, the sciences have
autonomous instrument whose come into their own, displacing theology
connections with other brains is a matter and philosophy at the center of the
of deliberate choice and of no real academic universe. In so doing, they
import. have produced extraordinary advances in
everyday life. People may reminisce
The human brain, the organ of
about the good old days, but thanks to
the mind, is housed deep within the
science and technology the amount of
cranial vault, where it is protected and
total income spent on the necessities of
isolated from others, so it may seem
food, clothing, and shelter dropped from
obvious that the brain is a solitary
80% in 1901 to 50% in 2002/2003. Yet
information processing device that has
there remains an inchoate sense that
no special means of connecting with
something is missing in our lives,
other brains. But we are fundamentally
something intangible and elusive.
a social species. Faces, expressive
Science has improved our material lives,
displays, and human speech receive
but improvements in material life may
preferential processing in neonate as
not be enough to optimize human well
well as adult brains. When a person
being.
feels rejected by others, their brain
shows the same pattern of activation as Can these two very different
when they are exposed to a physically ways of seeing the world be used
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synergistically to shed new light on the provocative story of the mind that is
human mind? In the Fall of 2004, we emerging from the collective efforts of
established an ongoing network of more the Network is the subject of this book.
than a dozen scholars unbounded by
The Network is unconventional
disciplinary precincts, geographical
in other ways, as well. Traditionally,
borders, or methodological perspectives
scientists and scholars work together to
to set aside antagonisms that had grown
achieve a common understanding and a
up between science and humanities in
consensus position. We quickly learned
order to explore this question. These
that we did not need to come to a
Network scholars hail from disciplines
consensus to benefit tremendously from
as disparate as psychology, neurology,
the dialogue on the capacity and
theology, statistics, philosophy, internal
motivation for the ubiquitous human
medicine, anthropology, and sociology.
quest for sociality and spirituality. For
Each of these scholars was well known
instance, there is no consensus within
in their own field and were busy with
the Network on whether there is a God,
other obligations, but it was the
and we do not seek here to provide the
opportunity to achieve a deeper, more
final word on what science and the
comprehensive discussion of the human
humanities each have to say to the other
mind that made it worth the time and
about the human mind. Instead, our
effort it required to be part of the
purpose is to illustrate the possibility and
Network.
importance of engaging others whose
Although various members of the views we may not share in a serious
Network interact on a daily or weekly dialogue on such topics. Among the
basis, the entire Network convenes twice lessons we as a Network have learned
annually for a four-day retreat to discuss are:
each other's research, to critique each
1. that some questions about human
other and to learn from one other.
nature and our social and
Scientific analyses characterized by
spiritual aspirations have been
rigorous experimental designs and data
asked by humankind for
analytic strategies are interlaced with
thousands of years. Accordingly,
rich philosophical, theological, and
there may be more to be gained
historical analyses of the same questions
from engaging in a collaborative
about invisible forces that act on us all.
process of thinking about these
The dialogue between the Network
questions than from demanding
scientists and the scholars from the
simple and immediate answers.
humanities and theology is bidirectional.
We discuss what we see as
For instance, the beliefs and behavior
possible answers to questions
described in the humanities and theology
about our nature and strivings,
are rich in hypotheses that can now be
but the value in stating these
tested empirically, and the measures and
positions is to have clear
methods of the behavioral sciences and
positions from which to move
neurosciences now permit rigorous
thinking and research forward.
investigation of some of these
Thus, our purpose in writing this
hypotheses. Each of the Network
book is to articulate ideas to be
members brings a unique perspective to
shaped and refined, not to
the study of the human mind, and the
provide the final word.
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2. that one need not agree with a from which they have not
position to perform a deep and benefitted. The tensions reflect
thorough analysis of the deep and enduring differences in
arguments for and against the the way in which scholars in the
position. Objectivity in thought humanities, the social sciences,
and analysis are keys to reaching and the sciences think about
a deep understanding of a topic. theory, methods, and evidence.
By taking a position, developing These differences can test one's
arguments for and against the mettle but if acknowledged,
position, then taking the opposite respected, embraced, and
position and doing likewise, we pursued, they result in a richer,
develop the capacity to be more more innovative and synergistic
dispassionate and powerful collaborative effort. In the case
thinkers — and gain deeper of our Network, this was neither
insight into a topic. easy nor quick, but it was
3. that one need not reach achieved through a mutual
agreement with someone to learn respect and exchange of ideas
a great deal from discussions and a shared conviction
with them or to make significant regarding the importance of the
advances in addressing a Network's combination of
complex question. The salve of approaches from the humanities
affirmation can lead us to seek and the sciences. In a sense, our
like-minded others and to Network is a microcosm of the
denigrate and avoid those who structure that exists in our
disagree with us. Although this society. if these tensions are
may provide temporary comfort, embraced and used to their full
it does little to help address deep catapultic effect, one can make
divisions or solve problems with progress on serious problems,
which we must deal in an transforming not only how we
increasingly complex and diverse think about the problem, but also
world. There are inherent how we think about those who
tensions between the sciences hold different or opposing views.
and the humanities, and these 4. that the insights or advances we
tensions have led to a can achieve need not be our or
polarization of views, an "it's my our opponent's position, or a
way or the highway" approach less-than optimal compromise
toward those holding divergent between the two, but rather they
points of view. The contents of can be truly innovative, building
this book illustrate an alternative on and transcending both initial
possibility. The Network is a positions. The specific forms of
very interdisciplinary group, and such creative and transcendent
the perspectives captured in the solutions arc difficult to
subsequent chapters reflect some articulate in advance but there is
of the same tensions with which a thought process — characterized
other books dealing with science by clarity, openness, constructive
and religion have dealt — and criticism, and synthesis — that
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increases the likelihood one will the nature of these two beings. Existing
reach such solutions. All of the scientific studies of religion have
perspectives discussed in this established the pervasiveness of
book have been transformed religious beliefs and practices and an
through this process. association between these beliefs or
practices and physical as well as mental
Background
health. Religious beliefs and practices
In pursuing the tandem lines of have also contributed to failures to heed
inquiry of science and the humanities, life-saving medical advice and to the
the Network itself serves as an example horrendous treatment of others. It will
of the human capacities and emergent be through the serious investigation of
processes that can derive from collective such beliefs and practices, not through
social structures and actions. In the their denial, that we may ultimately be
chapters to follow, the Network able to identify which aspects of these
examines the nature and power of beliefs and practices are beneficial, for
unseen forces ranging from human co- what individuals and in what contexts,
regulation to physiological effects of and through what specific mechanisms.
spiritual beliefs. The exchanges across
Recent research has made it
disciplinary perspectives suggest that the
patently clear that William James (1890,
"dominion of the solitary individual" is
p. 442, 2) underestimated the faculties of
insufficient to understand the human
human infants when he suggested that
mind or to optimize human health and
their first sensory experiences were a
well being. To understand human nature
"blooming, buzzing confitsion." But
and the human mind, one may need to
what James' sentiment did capture is the
appreciate human needs and capabilities
overwhelming complexity and
that have not been given due attention.
uncertainty that exists in the child's
Homo sapiens are a social environment, and the inherent difficulty
species, which means there are emergent in making sense of that complexity from
organizations beyond individuals that scratch. Our drive to make meaning is
contribute to the ability of our species to irrepressible---and when we do not
survive, reproduce, and care for our understand the forces that drive our
offspring sufficiently long that they too actions, we invent narratives that make
survive to reproduce. As a consequence, these invisible forces feel more
evolutionary forces have sculpted neural, predictable and understandable even if
hormonal, and genetic mechanisms that only in hindsight. But we do not do it
support these social structures. Among alone.
the possible consequences explored in
Adults as well as children must
this book arc that: 1) people are not the
explain the uncertainty and ambiguity of
entirely self-interested, short-term
natural phenomena (calamities of
thinking, rational decision makers
weather, death and reproduction) as well
assumed by the mythical creature, Homo
as social phenomena (human agents) in
economicus. and 2) some of the
order to operate effectively. But not all
amorphous dissatisfaction and chronic
actions are perceived as being
diseases that characterize contemporary
equivalent. Forces operating on objects
society may be, in part, the consequence
to compel action, as when gravity causes
of the denial of the differences between
rocks to slide down a mountain, are
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viewed as external causes. Forces goals, or intentions; aggregated beliefs
operating on human bodies to produce that result in social norms, values,
action, in contrast, arc viewed as religion, culture, and social movements;
reflective of purpose, driven not only by and codified forces such as decrees,
external causes but, more importantly, rules, alliances, and laws.
by abstract reasons such as goals,
Before the enlightenment of the
aspirations, and destiny. The meaning-
18th century, many scholars believed
making proclivities of humans are so
that thought was instantaneous and that
irrepressible that when external forces
action was governed by an indivisible
operate on human bodies to produce a
mind separate from the body. If a
significant impact on humankind, even
palpable cause for a person's behavior
the causes of the actions of these human
could not be identified, the Divine or
bodies tend to be regarded in terms of
some counterpart constituted a more
more abstract purposes and reasons. The
agreeable explanatory construct than
anthropomorphic description of
invisible forces acting through
hurricanes is a case in point.
scientifically specifiable mechanisms.
Actions of objects have causes, Unparalleled advances in the sciences
whereas actions of humans have reasons. have occurred since the dawn of the
Invisible forces that operate on humans Enlightenment, including the
but that appear to operate independent of development of scientific theories about
human agency have been the subject of magnetism, gravity, quantum mechanics,
religious speculations for centuries. and dark matter that depict invisible
These invisible forces include: internal forces operating with measurable effects
neural and biological forces (e.g., on physical bodies. During this same
homeostatic processes, autonomic period, serious scientific research on
activity) that exert regulatory forces invisible forces acting within, on and
which are largely hidden from conscious across human bodies was slowed and
experience or control; strong emotions underfunded in part because the study of
that seem to arise apart from conscious the human mind and behavior was
human intention (e.g., rage, fear, regarded by many in the public and in
empathy); phenomena such as dreams or politics as soft and of dubious validity.
hallucinations that seemingly operate The result is that many still regard the
independent from the human will; mind and behavior as best understood in
motivations, biases, inclinations, terms of the actions of non-scientific
predilections (such as agents, such as a god or gods, and the
anthropomorphism, ambiguity manifestations of mental illness as the
avoidance, preference for simple result of a failure of individual will — a
explanations, etc.) whose presence is so denial of the possibility that invisible
universal that, like language, the forces (that is, forces that are tractable
capacities for their development or scientifically but of which a person is
expression may have an evolutionary not normally aware) can affect mind and
basis; individual beliefs (such as the behavior.
belief that there is a reality outside our
One could try to explain away
head/we are not dreaming; the belief in
the gap in scientific knowledge about
human freedom; in values such as
invisible forces by referring to the
equality, etc), attitudes, preferences,
conception of science and religion as
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systems of knowledge that are in provision of tangible support to
opposition. This approach is common individuals in need, to the promotion of
and evident in a spate of contemporary healthy lifestyles and ethical behavior—
books that take the position that science scientific research to understand these
and religion represent competing ways influences may again be a more
of understanding the world and that productive response than broad
science (or religion) is the one and only denouncements by scientists that such
valid way of understanding human beliefs are irrational. Indeed, the
behavior and the world around us (3-8). question of whether God exists is of
For instance, in The God Delusion, much less scientific interest, and of
Richard Dawkins places specific Judeo- much more questionable scientific merit
Christian theological doctrines under the (how would one scientifically falsify
scrutiny of science only to find that none such a claim?), than the question of the
passes scientific muster. causes, consequences, and underlying
mechanisms for the observable human
The vast majority of people from
behaviors affected by invisible forces--
all educational backgrounds continue to
whether they be physical (gravity),
harbor strong religious beliefs that affect
social (groups), or perceived spiritual
their daily decisions and behavior, with
(gods).
both good and ill effects. These
religious belief systems most commonly Contemporary science explains
bump into scientific claims around many of these phenomena but also
invisible forces. When science opens up points to the human capacities and
opportunities to improve the human emergent processes that derive from
condition by providing a more complete collective social structures and actions
understanding of the causes of events, and, underlying the emergence of these
their measurable effects, and possible structures, the human need for meaning-
interventions— ranging from valid making and connecting to something
science education to medical beyond oneself. The dominant metaphor
advancements based on stem cell for the scientific study of the human
research — these opportunities are often mind during the latter half of the 200%
threatened by the application of specific century has been the computer — a
religious beliefs to these endeavors. solitary device with massive information
Scientific research to understand religion processing capacities. Computers today
and religious belief systems may be a are massively interconnected devices
more productive response than broad with capacities that extend far beyond
denouncements by scientists of any who the resident hardware and software of a
hold such beliefs. solitary computer. The extended
capacities made possible by the internet
Conversely, when religion opens
can be said to be emergent because they
up opportunities for improving the
represent a whole that is greater than the
human condition by questioning the
simple sum of the actions that are
emphasis on short-term self-interests at
possible by the sum of the individual
the expense of the collective, providing a
(disconnected) computers that constitute
more complete understanding of the
the Internet. The telereceptors (e.g.,
human need to attribute meaning to
eyes, ears) of the human brain have
events and their effects, and identifying
provided wireless broadband
possible interventions— ranging from the
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interconnectivity to humans for human characteristics onto nonhuman
millennia. Just as computers have objects to achieve meaning,
capacities and processes that are predictability, and human connection, is
transduced through but extend far beginning to be subjected to productive
beyond the hardware of a single multi-level scientific analysis.
computer, the human brain has evolved Experimental studies have shown that
to promote social and cultural capacities manipulations which increase feelings of
and processes that are transduced social isolation without the possibility of
through but that extend far beyond a resolving these feelings through human
solitary brain. To understand the full interaction have the compensatory effect
capacity of humans, one needs to of increasing people's tendency to
appreciate not only the memory and anthropomorphize, including heightened
computational power of the brain but its beliefs in God. This scientific work has
capacity for representing, understanding, implications for understanding claims
and connecting with other individuals. regarding the success of religious
That is, one needs to recognize that we practices such as solitude as paths to
have evolved a powerful, meaning feeling closer God. Research on
making social brain. anthropomorphism has now identified
developmental, situational, dispositional,
Social species, by definition,
and cultural factors that modulate
create structures beyond the individual—
people's tendency to anthropomorphize
structures ranging from dyads and
nonhuman agents ranging from
families to institutions and cultures.
technological gadgets to animals to gods,
These emergent structures have evolved
and the neural mechanisms underlying
hand in hand with neural and hormonal
this transconfiguration of nonhuman
mechanisms to support them because the
objects into human-like agents are
consequent social behaviors (e.g.,
beginning to be revealed.
cooperation, empathy, altruism, etc.)
helped these organisms survive, Guided by the insights from
reproduce, and care for offspring these new scientific theories of
sufficiently long that they too anthropomorphism, historical analyses
reproduced. From an evolutionary may be worthwhile to determine whether
perspective then, the social context is concepts of god have changed across
fundamental in the evolution and time and cultures such that god was
development of the human brain. created in the image of the believer
rather than vice versa. Xenophanes (6th
The observable consequences of
century B.C., cited in 9), for instance,
these higher organizations have long
was apparently the first to use the term
been apparent, but we are only now
"anthropomorphism" when describing
beginning to understand their genetic,
the similarities between religious agents
neural, and biochemical basis and
and their believers, noting that Greek
consequences. To fully delve into these
gods were invariably fair skinned and
complex behaviors, science needs to deal
blue-eyed whereas African gods were
with the invisible forces that shape
invariably dark skinned and dark-eyed
human life, whether it is in the form of
(joking that cows would surely worship
physical, biological, or psychological
gods that looked strikingly cow-like).
forces. For instance, anthropomorphism,
Brain imaging research has confirmed
the irrepressible proclivity to attribute
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that anthropomorphism is associated aggregation of these invisible forces at
with the activation of the same prefrontal different levels. Related research
areas that are active when people think questions include why they exist, and
about themselves or project themselves measures of robustness. One of our
onto others. central goals is to demonstrate not only
that considerations of these forces
Conclusion
matter, but that that they can matter a
Just as critically, the study of lot.
invisible forces requires a discussion of
There also are questions of value
the method that successful teams use to
and ethics that could be implicated:
work together as they cross disciplinary
descriptive knowledge, models,
boundaries. Over the past few decades,
awareness of causal relationships, and so
there has been a demonstrable shift from
on, might not be enough to answer some
the individual genius as the source of
kinds of questions, especially those
scientific and scholarly breakthroughs to
related to value and purpose, which are
interdisciplinary teams. This shift in the
the very energies that animate and
production of cutting-edge knowledge
invigorate real human systems.
has been documented in all fields of
Economics comes close with its proxy
scholarly activity, ranging from
measure of value based on the
mathematics and theoretical physics to
distribution of scarce resources and
the humanities. This shift has both made
people's varying need for these
possible and been necessitated by a need
resources. But this theory comes up
to understand complex behaviors.
short in many instances where other
Although this project is primarily about
values are at play that are beyond
the ways that scientists seek to study the
markets, such as in assessing the value
impact of invisible forces, it will also
of a human life, or whether all lives are
reflect the methodologies that these
of equal value. It is an especially poor
researchers use so that their work is not
model for helping us understand
constrained by common knowledge.
something as simple as the value of
The philosophy of science also articles of sentimental value, such as
looks different when dealing with simple family photographs, which may have
causality (one-to-one relations) than with little or no market value at all. Thus,
complex causality. Affirmation of the how do we best understand the
consequent, a logical error in which a "sentiments" that are important in the
given cause for an effect is inferred real world?
based on the observation of the effect,
The members of the Network
does not lead to a scientific error when
have worked beyond the boundaries of
there is but a single cause for the
disciplinary borders, geographical
observed effect. However, as scientific
precincts, and epistemological comfort
inquiry addresses increasingly complex
zones to develop a rigorous but
phenomena, and increasingly complexly
innovative approach to the study of the
determined phenomena, the philosophy
human mind, sociality, spirituality,
of science needs to become more
health, and well being. The Network
nuanced.
members represented in this book are
A core challenge is to develop a Gary Bemtson from Ohio State
"science" of identification and University, Don Browning from the
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University of Chicago, John Cacioppo 2. W. James, The principles of
(Network Director) from the University psychology. (Holt, New York,
of Chicago, Farr Curlin from the 1890).
University of Chicago Medical Center,
3. R. Dawkins, The God delusion.
Jean Decety from the University of
(Bantam, London, 2006).
Chicago, Nick Epley from the University
of Chicago Booth School, Clark Gilpin 4. D. C. Dennett, Breaking the
from the University of Chicago, Louise spell: Religion as a natural
Hawkley from the University of phenomenon. (Penguin, New
Chicago, Tanya Luhrmann from York, 2006).
Stanford University, Chris Masi from the
5. S. Harris, The end offaith:
University of Chicago Medical Center,
Religion, terror, and the future of
Howard Nusbaum from the University
reason. (W. W. Norton, New
of Chicago, Gun Semin from the
York, 2004).
University of Utrecht, Steve Small from
6. S. Harris, Letter to a Christian
the University of Chicago Medical
nation. (Vintage Books, New
Center, Kathryn Tanner from the
University of Chicago, and Ron Thisted York, 2006).
from the University of Chicago Medical 7. C. Hitchens, God is not great:
Center. The biography of each along How religion poisons everything.
with an explanation for the essay each (Hachette Book Group, New
presents is provided at the beginning of York, 2007).
each of their essays on invisible forces.
8. D. Mills, Atheist universe: The
thinking person's answer to
Christian fundamentalism.
References
(Ulysses Press, Berkeley, CA,
1. D. J. Boorstin, The Discoverers.
2004).
(Random House., New York,
9. J. H. Lesher, Xenophanes:
1983).
Fragments. (University of
Toronto Press, Toronto, 1992).
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offspring also grow to maturity and
From Selfish Genes to Social Brains
reproduce. This leads to natural
The Chicago Social Brain selection choosing those genes and
Network was established to examine capacities that contribute to cooperation,
how science might inform us about our reciprocity, attachments, and generosity.
fundamental human nature, including the Over the millennia of human evolution,
apparently irrepressible quest for this process has created the social brain
connection with a higher understanding and made humans a unique social
and organization. Science can describe animal.
what religion does in rigorous ways that
benefit religion, and religion can serve a
meaning-making function that science
itself disclaims. This is not to say that
science can address the existence of
God. Our Network instead focuses on
the consequences of believing in such a
mind and of seeing into that mind.
In the next chapter, John
Cacioppo, a social neuroscientist, draws
on work on evolutionary theory,
sociobiology, and evolutionary
psychology to examine the implications
of the selfish gene hypothesis for Homo
sapiens. He shows how the notion of the
selfish gene has been joined with
political theory, consumerism, and
economics to produce a dominant
modern image of humans summarized
by the phrase "what is best for me is best
for the society." Without rejecting the
selfish gene view, Cacioppo shows how
it evolves in humans into what he calls
the "social brain"— a large cerebral
cortex and an interconnected limbic
lobule that together are sensitive to the
complexities of physical and social
environments. Central to this
complexity is the long period of
dependency of the human infant and the
interdependencies of adult humans for
survival especially in hostile
environments (e.g., warfare). For the
selfish gene to contribute its DNA to the
ongoing gene pool, the individual must
not only reproduce but also cooperate
with others to assure that his or her
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The Social Nature of Humankind
, I memaill•--rvra.,,,,,,
._ 74+0 I ,ll I C on o e n lnin e e c ss tio f; g .. e . n 7 e • r7 -a td M g . r . r4 . i I cOie1 is brain Social species. by definition. arc
s ... t , ., p 0 et , 2 ie 1 st 2 c . , u et characterized by the formation of structures
1t
chama g-r n gp bArvior-E Tri, (e.g., dyads, families, tribes, cultures) that
king ,"''"
othersesita% iniii 1.1u extend beyond an individual. Although we
oisurviv itigenes [1 leonngstisrm olt
Jr ...am* humanil 51:711.tu fa! Ent= may revere the rugged individualist, we are
it.'"•=ime i maim I . Et" . fundamentally a social species. I begin by
discussing some of the invisible evolutionary
forces that led members of our species to band
Chapter 22 together to form such structures. I then
consider how selfish genes (e.g., through
anthropomorphism, /) might have led to social
2 The lead author is John T. Cacioppo, Ph.D., the
brains and why the social connections and
Tiffany and Margaret Blake Distinguished
Service Professor in the Departments of structures created by humans are especially
Psychology and Psychiatry and the Director of powerful and flexible. Finally, I describe a
the Center for Cognitive and Social nonintuitive way of thinking about the
Neuroscience at the University of Chicago. He
absence of satisfactory social connections
is a co-founder (with Gary Bemtson) of the field
(i.e., loneliness), mention how and why
of social neuroscience, a past president of the
Association for Psychological Science and a chronic loneliness can be so harmful, and
recipient of numerous awards including the discuss how our need for social connection
National Academy of Sciences Troland Research motivates us to search for meaning and
Award and the American Psychological
connections beyond ourselves and other
Association Distinguished Scientific
individuals. One implication that is explored
Contribution Award. Cacioppo's research
concerns the neural, hormonal, genetic, and here, and in more detail in the essays to
behavioral mechanisms underlying the operation follow, is that genetic and cultural adaptations,
and maintenance of the emergent structures that not human ignorance, may be fueling the
characterize social species generally and humans
search for meaning and connection with a
in particular. lie has published more than 400
transcendent entity or being.
scientific articles and 16 books, including
Loneliness: Human nature and the needf or
Mythic Individualism
social connection (2008, Norton Books) and
Handbook ofn eurosciencef or the behavioral For at least the past century, we
sciences (2009, John Wiley & Sons). Cacioppo have celebrated the power and
is also the Director of the Chicago Social Brain
intellectual might of the solitary genius.
Network.
This includes individuals such as
Cacioppo has been interested both in
the similarities and the differences between Thomas Edison who brought electrical
humans and other species. Human social power to individual households,
cognition, emotion, behavior, and executive transforming night into day; Henry Ford
functioning - that is, our social brain - are
who introduced the mass production of
especially sophisticated compared to those found
in other species. Research in the neurosciences
sometimes focuses so much on mechanisms
divorced from the social settings and functions comparison to and knowledge of the rich
they may have evolved to serve in social species benefits of human social interaction and feelings
such as our own that the generalizations to of connection. This essay addresses this gap in
humans are inaccurate. Animal models permit our thinking about the genetic, neural, and
experimental control and interventions that hormonal processes that constitute our brain and
cannot be carried out in humans, but body and in doing so provides a different
understanding the implications of this work for perspective on who we are as a unique biological
the human brain and biology depends on explicit species.
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automobiles, changing how we to be a large, tumultuous ball with a
transported and consequently how and mind of its own. The rule governing the
where we worked and lived; Charles behavior of this dynamic and adaptive
Darwin who argued that the difference in collective action can be explained
mind between humans and other species, entirely in terms of self-interests. Each
great as it is, is one of degree and not of fish is driven to swim to the middle,
kind; and Albert Einstein who surmised where it is less likely to be eaten by the
a relationship between energy and hungry predator. Sardines are born with
matter, opening a universe of the capacity to swim, find food, and
possibilities that previously was virtually avoid predators. If they survive long
unimaginable. As a result, the cultural enough to reproduce, their genes will be
focus moved from a focus on the social part of the gene pool for future
group — the family, neighborhood, or generations. That is, if those who are
society — toward the autonomous genetically predisposed to swim to the
individual. middle are more likely to survive
predation, then the genetic
Forty years ago, the dominant
predisposition to swim to the middle will
metaphor for the human mind was the
become a characteristic of a larger
digital computer, complete with inputs,
percentage of sardines in future
filing and memory systems, limited
generations.
processing resources, and outputs.
Evolutionary theory focused on the The sardine ball is an example of
selfish gene and, by extension, on the a more general phenomenon, in which
individual whose purpose for living was the choices made by members of a group
to survive long enough to reproduce. endow the collective with properties that
Milton Friedman influenced economic are consistent, predictable, and
theory and government policies for purposive enough that we can speak of
decades by positing that people, being them as "behaviors" of the group, even
fundamentally rational, are motivated though the collective actions of the
first and foremost by self interests, and group are not directed by any of the
the adage of "united we stand, divided individual members. This phenomenon
we fall" was supplanted by the notion can be called "emergent," because the
that what is best for the me is best for the properties or behavior of the group are
society. Moving from an economy not determined by any individual but
based on manufacturing for the masses arises from the collective behaviors of
to one based on catering to idiosyncratic the individuals who constitute the group.
consumer interests further fueled a focus Social structures like the sardine ball
on the preferences of the autonomous have evolved because the sardines
individual. whose genes compelled them to swim to
the middle in the presence of predators
One can certainly find evidence
were more likely to survive to
in humans and other species for the view
reproduce, thereby contributing these
of life being best understood in terms of
genes to this species' gene pool.
self-interest. Sardines, for example,
swim in what appears to be synchronized According to the National
schools until approached by a predator, Science Foundation's Tree of Life
at which time they dart about so project, there are anywhere between 5
chaotically that they create what appears million and 100 million species on
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Earth, only 2 million of which have been less fit so that the group might survive.
identified thus far. Most of the species Subsequent generations of evolutionary
identified arc either born with the biologists realized that even though
capacity to find sustenance and avoid genes might act as if selfish, the vehicle
predation sufficiently well that some responsible for the transport of these
survive long enough to reproduce, or genes to the gene pool occasionally
they are born in such large numbers that extended beyond the individual or parent
some survive long enough to reproduce. to kin and even to unrelated members of
It is the ability of such organisms to groups. More specifically, in some cases
reproduce that determines what genes the superorganismal structures formed
constitute the gene pool for the future by social organisms represent naturally
generations of that species. These genes, selected levels of organization above
in turn, shape the structure and function individual organisms (4).
of the organisms that constitute a
Consider the example of the
species. This reasoning led George
Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes formed).
Williams (2) to suggest a half century
Emperor penguins typically reside near
ago that traits (i.e., behavioral
their food source of squid, shoaling fish,
tendencies) which benefit the group at
and small crustaceans but in early winter
the expense of the individual would
they gather into breeding colonies
evolve only if the process of group-
(rookeries) up to 60 miles inland in April
selection was great enough to overcome
and May during the Antarctic winter.
selection within groups. He further
They search for their mate from the
suggested that group selection is nearly
previous year, and go through a
always weak, so that group-related
courtship ritual before mating. The
adaptations do not exist (3). Richard
female lays only one egg in May or
Dawkins (I) popularized the notion that
June, which coincides with the start of
traits which evolve arc adaptive at the
the bitter Antarctica winter. The
gene level through his use of the
Emperor penguins are thought to have
metaphor of the selfish gene. Genes
developed this unusual winter breeding
serve their own selfish interests in the
behavior to permit the chick to grow to
sense that whatever the contributions
independence the following summer,
made by a gene, or set of genes, to an
when food is plentiful. Ensuring the
organism's structure and function would
chick survives that long is a collective
be passed on to the next generation if
enterprise, with the vehicle responsible
and only if the gene made its way to the
for the chick surviving long enough such
gene pool. Survival of the fittest now
that it too can reproduce not being solely
had a biological basis.
the mother or the father but also the
United We Stand, Divided We Fall huddle.
Charles Darwin did not know The birthing of the egg leaves the
that genes were the mechanism through mother depleted, so she must return to
which structures and behaviors evolved, the seaside to feed while the father
but an important component of his assumes responsibility for the incubation
original theory was the notion of of the egg during the winter. An egg
survival of the fittest. Darwin was also from an Emperor penguin will quickly
puzzled by the observation that many freeze if left exposed to harsh winter
individual organisms made themselves conditions of the Antarctica, so the
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