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transition of the egg from beneath the complexities facing the human species.
warmth and safety of the mother to atop Indeed, the social brain hypothesis posits
the feet and under a fold of feathered that the social complexities and demands
abdominal skin of the father requires a of primate species contributed to the
bit of coordination on the part of the rapid increase in neocortical (i.e., the
two. Even this is not sufficient for the outer layer of the brain) connectivity and
genes of this pair to find their way into intelligence (8). Warfare among
the gene pool. The conditions of the ancestral hunter-gatherers appears to
Antarctic winters are among the least have contributed to group selection for
hospitable on earth, with winter human social behaviors, especially
temperatures dipping below -60 degrees altruistic behaviors (5). As Darwin
Celsius and winds reaching 120 mph. (1871) noted:
To protect themselves from the wind and
A tribe including many members
cold, the male penguins huddle together,
who, from possessing a high
spending much of their time sleeping to
degree of the spirit of patriotism,
conserve energy. In this harsh
fidelity, obedience, courage, and
environment, survival of the chicks
sympathy, were always ready to
depends on the shared warmth and
aid one another, and to sacrifice
protection of the huddle, not the
themselves for the common good
individual. The group as a whole is
would be victorious over most
more likely to survive if each penguin
other tribes; and this would be
and chick shares in the warmth and
natural selection. (p. 166)
protection of the collective structure,
which means selective pressures exist to Moreover, deducing better ways
promote cooperation to maintain the to find food, avoid perils, and navigate
integrity of the huddle. More generally, territories has adaptive value for large
for species born to a period of utter mammals, but the complexities of these
dependency, the genes that find their ecological demands are no match for the
way into the gene pool are not defined complexities of social living (especially
solely or even mostly by likelihood that in hostile between-group social
an organism will reproduce but by the environments), which include:
likelihood that the offspring of the parent recognizing ingroup and outgroup
will live long enough to reproduce. As members; learning by social observation;
in the case of the Emperor penguins, one recognizing the shifting status of friends
consequence is that selfish genes and foes; anticipating and coordinating
evolved through individual-level efforts between two or more individuals;
selection processes to promote social using language to communicate, reason,
preferences and group processes, teach, and deceive others; orchestrating
including reciprocal social behaviors, relationships, ranging from pair bonds
that can extend beyond kin relationships and families to friends, bands, and
(e.g., 5). Examples of such selection coalitions; navigating complex social
processes in humans exist, as well (e.g., hierarchies, social norms and cultural
6, 7). developments; subjugating self-interests
to the interests of the pair bond or social
The environmental challenges
group in exchange for the possibility of
facing Emperor penguins, as daunting as
long term benefits for oneself or one's
they are, pale by comparison to the
group; recruiting support to sanction
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individuals who violate group norms; run derives not solely from the
and doing all this across time frames that reproductive success of individuals, but
stretch from the distant past to multiple also from the success of their children to
possible futures (9). Consistent with reproduce. Hunter/gatherers who did not
this hypothesis, measures of sociality in form social connections and who did not
troops of baboons have been found to be feel a compulsion to return to share their
highly correlated with infant survival, food or defense with their offspring may
and cross-species comparisons have have been more likely to survive to
shown that the evolution of large and procreate again, but given the long
metabolically expensive brains is more period of dependency of human infants
closely associated with social than their offspring may have been less likely
ecological complexity (9). to survive to procreate. The result is
selection that strongly favors the ability
Our survival depends on our
to process information that could
connection with others. Born to the
contribute to the formation and
most prolonged period of utter
maintenance of social capacities and
dependency of any animal, human
connections — that is, a social brain.
infants must instantly engage their
These social capacities evolved hand in
parents in protective behavior, and the
hand with genetic, neural, and hormonal
parents must care enough about their
mechanisms to support them because the
offspring to nurture and protect them. If
resulting social behaviors helped humans
infants do not elicit nurturance and
survive, reproduce, and care for
protection from caregivers, or if
offspring sufficiently long that they too
caregivers are not motivated to provide
survived to reproduce (11-13). Relative
such care over an extended period of
to other animals, the striking
time, then the infants will perish along
development of and increased
with the genetic legacy of the parents
connectivity within the human cerebral
(/0). Our developmental dependency
cortex, especially the frontal and
mirrors our evolutionary heritage.
temporal regions, are among the key
Hunter/gatherers did not have the benefit
evolutionary developments in this
of natural weaponry, armor, strength,
regard. The cerebral cortex is a mantle
flight, stealth, or speed relative to many
of between 2.6 to 16 billion neurons with
other species. Human survival depended
each neuron receiving 10,000 to 100,000
on collective abilities, not on individual
synapses in their dendritic trees (e.g.,
might.
14). The expansion of the frontal
Selfish Genes, Social Brains regions in the human brain contributes to
the human capacities for reasoning,
it is the gene that is obligatorily
planning, performing mental
selfish, not the human brain. Genes that
simulations, theory of mind, and
promote behaviors that increase the odds
thinking about self and others. The
of the genes surviving are perpetuated.
temporal regions of the brain, in turn, are
One implication of this simple insight is
involved with aspects of social
that evolution can be viewed as the
perception, memory, and
competition between genes using
communication. The means for guiding
individuals and social structures as their
behavior through the environment
temporary vehicles. The genetic
emerged prior to neocortical expansion.
constitution of Homo Sapiens in the long
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The evolutionarily older systems also is surprisingly easy to overlook the
play a role in human information evident.
processing and behavior, albeit in a more
Noticing the Unusual, Overlooking the
rigid and stereotyped fashion. The
Obvious
intricately interconnected neocortical
regions of the frontal lobes are involved On January IS, 2009, US
in self control, which permits the Airways Flight 1549 departed from New
modulation of these older systems and York's LaGuardia Airport for Charlotte,
the overriding of organismal hedonistic North Carolina when it struck a flock of
impulses for the benefit of others (15). geese during takeoff. Both engines were
disabled, and the heavy aircraft quickly
Evidence across human history
lost the power it needed to stay aloft, but
provides overwhelming support for the
Capt. Chesley Sullenberger somehow
supposition that humans are
managed a controlled descent into the
fundamentally social creatures (13).
Hudson River. The media dubbed the
Even in contemporary times in which
ditching of the plane and the survival of
autonomy is revered, the average person
all 155 passengers and crew the miracle
has been estimated to spend nearly 80%
on the Hudson, and Sullenberger was
of waking hours in the company of
duly heralded as a hero. The ability to
others, most of which is spent in small
control the descent of an 84-ton plane
talk with known individuals (16). These
without engine thrust is not something
estimates have been supported in more
with which humans are naturally
detailed assessment using the day-
endowed. Sullenberger was not a
reconstruction method to determine how
novice, of course. He is a U.S. Air
people spend their time and how they
Force Academy graduate who flew F-4
experienced events in their lives on a
fighter planes while in the Air Force, has
daily basis (17). The results of these
40 years of flight experience, and holds a
daily assessments indicate people spend
commercial glider license and glider
only 3.4 hrs alone, or approximately
instructor rating. As remarkable as was
20% of their waking hours. The time
his achievement relative to what one
spent with friends, relatives, spouse,
might normally expect in this situation,
children, clients, and coworkers is rated
however, Sullenberger's efforts were not
on average as more inherently rewarding
sufficient for the miracle on the Hudson
than the time spent alone (17).
to be achieved.
Respondents indicate that their
When Flight 1549 came to a stop
most enjoyable activities are intimate
in the frigid Hudson River, the
relations and socializing — activities that
passengers and crew scrambled to the
promote bonding and high quality
wings and inflatable slides of their
relationships, whereas their least
slowly sinking aircraft. Local
enjoyable activities are commuting and
commercial vessels from the New York
working. These results are consistent
Waterway and Circle Line fleets
with survey data. When asked "what is
responded almost immediately, with the
necessary for happiness?" the majority
first of the vessels reaching the plane
of respondents rate "relationships with
within four minutes. The crews of the
family and friends" as most important
various vessels worked together to
(18), although we certainly do not
rescue the passengers and crew of Flight
always act like this is most important. It
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1549, and various volunteers and aid of another, even a stranger, in dire
agencies offered medical assistance. need led to public outrage. Decades of
These rescue efforts were not motivated research led to the conclusion that the
by personal or commercial self-interests, ambiguity of the situation and the
and none of the commercial vessel diffusion of responsibility were
captains was lauded as a hero. Their contributing factors.
efforts received less attention because
These two news stories illustrate,
their actions were precisely what we
in very different ways, how invisible
expect of one another.
forces sculpted by evolution and
It is the unusual, not the cultivated by the environment act on our
commonplace, that is noticed. On species. When commercial boat captains
March 13, 1964, Kitty Genovese parked act against their own financial interests
near her home in Kew Gardens, New to rescue others on a sinking aircraft, we
York, and proceeded to her residence in think nothing of it because we believe it
a small apartment complex. Winston is what any individual in the same
Moseley, a business machine operator situation would naturally do. When
who later confessed that his motive was observers of a brutal attack do nothing to
simply to kill a woman, overtook aid the victim, we are horrified because
Genovese and stabbed her twice in the we believe it goes against who we are as
back. Genovese screamed, "Oh my a species. Humans are not motivated
God, he stabbed me! Help me!", a call solely by self interests but rather we
that was heard by neighbors. When one work together and help one another
neighbor shouted at the attacker, "Leave when in need. We survive and prosper
that girl alone," Moseley ran away. in the long term through collective
Genovese, who was wounded and concerns and actions, not by solely
bleeding, moved toward the apartment selfish pursuits (20).
building slowly and alone. Moseley
Danger Signals
returned approximately 10 minutes later
and searched for Genovese. Finding her The stories of the sardine ball
nearly unconscious in a hallway of the and the penguin huddle suggest that it is
building, he continued his knife attack dangerous to be on the social perimeter.
on her and sexually assaulted her. The Living on the perimeter threatens the
entire attack unfolded over about half an lives and genetic legacy of humans, as
hour, and yet no one responded. The well. Epidemiological studies have
first clear call for help to the police did found that social isolation is not only
not occur until minutes following the associated with lower levels of
final attack, and Genovese died in an happiness and well being but with broad
ambulance en route to the hospital. The based morbidity and mortality (21).
number of people who were aware of Moreover, humans are such meaning-
some aspect of the attack was estimated making creatures that perceived social
to be from a dozen to more than three isolation is at least as important a
dozen. One unidentified neighbor who predictor of adverse outcomes on human
saw part of the attack was quoted in a health and well being as is objective
New York Times article as saying "I social isolation (22). Writers may spend
didn't want to get involved." (19). The long periods by themselves, but the
notion that people might not go to the envisioned readers make this time feel
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anything but isolated. High school distinct is that these are broader social
graduates who leave family and friends identities, linked to larger social groups
for the first time to attend college, on the rather than individual members of the
other hand, typically experience intense groups. When we examined the
feelings of social isolation even though dimensions underlying loneliness/social
they are physically around more people connectedness, we found the same three
than before they left home. Caspi and basic dimensions (26): (1) intimate
colleagues (23) found that perceived connection/isolation refers to the
social isolation in adolescence and perceived presence/absence of anyone in
young adulthood predicted how many your life who affirms you as a valued
cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., body person; (2) relational
mass index, waist circumference, blood connection/isolation refers to the
pressure, cholesterol) were elevated in perceived presence/absence of quality
young adulthood, and that the number of friendships or family connections; and
developmental occasions (i.e., (3) collective connection/isolation refers
childhood, adolescence, young to the perceived presence/absence of a
adulthood) at which participants felt meaningful connection with a group or
socially isolated predicted the number of social stimulus (e.g., school, team)
elevated risk factors in young adulthood. beyond other individuals. When you
perceive you are part of a valued group
Perceived social isolation is
(collective connection), for instance, you
known more colloquially as loneliness,
may be more inclined to agree with other
which in early scientific investigations
group members, even on beliefs that
was depicted as "a chronic distress
may seem irrational, than when you are
without redeeming features" (24. p. 15).
thinking of yourself as a unique
Loneliness may feel like a painfully
individual.
miserable, hopeless, and worthless state,
but we have found it has a specific Given that human survival and
structure and a valuable adaptive prosperity depends on inclusion in and
function. participation with a social group,
especially in evolutionary time when
Research on the ways in which
food was scarce and dangers were
people describe themselves when asked
common, there is an adaptive benefit to
the question, "Who are you?", reveals
having the strong and aversive response
three basic dimensions (25): (1) a
of loneliness when an individual feels
personal, or intimate, self the "you" of
his or her social connections might be
your individual characteristics; (2) a
weakening or broken, just as there is a
social or relational self, which is who
benefit to having aversive signals for
you are in relation to the people closest
other conditions critical for survival.
to you—your spouse, kids, friends, and
Hunger, thirst, and pain have evolved as
neighbors; and (3) a collective self, the
aversive signals to prompt an organism
you that is the member of a certain
to change their behavior in a way that
ethnic group, has a certain national
protects the individual and promotes the
identity, belongs to certain professional
likelihood their genes will make their
or other associations, and a member of
way into the gene pool. The social pain
the fan club for certain sports teams.
of loneliness has evolved similarly — to
Similar to the relational self, this part of
serve as a signal that one's connections
the self is social but what makes this self
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to others are weakening and to motivate influences of gravity or magnetic flux.
the repair and maintenance of the In the cases of team and school spirit,
connections to others that are needed for this influence represents a specific form
our health and well being as for the of social connection between an
survival of our genes (27). Physical pain individual and an emergent structure.
is an aversive signal that evolved to
Perceived social connections are
motivate one to take action that
abstractions that can transcend time and
minimizes damage to one's body.
space. People may feel a connection
Loneliness is an aversive signal that
with their ancestors or family heritage
evolved to motivate one to take action
even if they are the only remaining
that minimizes damage to one's social
descendant, just as people can perceive
body.
personal connections with pets, cars,
People differ dispositionally in television characters, celebrities, and
their sensitivity to the pain of social unseen spiritual entities with whom they
disconnection (i.e., feelings of do not actually interact. A potent
loneliness; 28) just as people differ in component of spirituality (that does not
sensitivity to physical pain. Ostracism depend on a specific religion) is the
or objective isolation in most species is feeling of connection and purpose that
associated with an early death (29). In come from forming a relationship with a
humans, the chronic feeling of social higher being. A simple byproduct of our
isolation, even when the person remains selfish genes and social brains may be
among the protective embrace of others, our search for meaning in and
is associated with significant mental and connection with broader organizations or
physical disorders (30). Chronic hunger, beings.
thirst, and pain can also have deleterious
Conclusion
effects for, like loneliness, their adaptive
value lies in their effects as acute In 1939, the astrophysicist Sir Arthur
signals, not as chronic conditions. The Eddington published a book entitled The
opposite of feeling hunger, thirst, pain, philosophy ofp hysical science (32). In it he
or loneliness is feeling normal, and this describes a hypothetical scientist who sought
is the state in which most people exist to determine the size of the various fish in the
most of the time. sea. The scientist began by weaving a 2-inch
mesh net and setting sail across the seas,
The social connections formed
repeatedly sampling catches and carefully
by humans need not be based on genetic
measuring, recording, and analyzing the
similarities. The human species has
results of each catch. After extensive
evolved the capacity for and motivation
sampling, the scientist concluded that there
to form relationships not only with other
were no fish smaller than two inches in the
individuals but also with groups (e.g., a
sea. The moral of Sir Eddington's analogy is
Chicago Cubs or Boston Red Sox fan)
twofold. First, scientific instruments are
and nonhuman entities (e.g., through
shaped by people's intuitive theories of the
anthropomorphism, 31). Team spirit and
phenomena to be investigated. Second, once
school spirit are familiar notions, and
developed, scientific expectations and
although team or school spirit refers to
instruments shape data and theory in ways
an invisible influence, it is an invisible
more powerfully and fundamentally than are
influence that is no less open to rigorous
often appreciated.
scientific inquiry than are the invisible
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What is the relevance of this to the feel socially isolated (i.e., lonely)
story of the social nature of humankind? Our compared to when they do not feel
research findings have led me to believe that lonely, they are more likely not only to
we all have made Eddington's error in the way perceive nonhuman objects as human-
we have thought about, studied, and tried to like but to believe in the existence of
deal with an invisible force that motivates us God (31, 36). To understand the full
to seek and maintain our connection with capacity of and forces operating on
others — including the loneliness one feels humans, we need to appreciate not only
when we feel important social connections are the memory and computational power of
threatened or absent. Historically, the the brain but its capacity for
scientific perspective on loneliness was not representing, understanding, and
only that it was a painful and miserable state, connecting with other individuals and
but that it was an aversive state with no with the emergent structures, fictional
redeeming features. All one needs to do is to and real, that the brain can represent.
reflect on the last time one felt terribly lonely, That is, we need to recognize that we
and one can appreciate the seemingly self- have evolved a powerful, meaning-
evident truth of this characterization. But as making social brain and a need for social
Sir Arthur Eddington's story shows us, the connection.
obvious and intuitive can sometimes be very
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From Inclusive Fitness to Spiritual religion serves to extend love and
Striving connection beyond kin. He further
argues that new developments in the
The notion of "selfish genes"
sciences and long-standing traditions in
(and, by extension, selfish organisms)
theology constitute fertile ground on
was popularized in Richard Dawkins'
which to build new and testable
1976 book by that title. Not long
hypotheses regarding our fundamental
afterwards, an article appeared in
human nature.
Science that presented evidence that the
most vicious members of a warlike tribe I. S. Beckerman et al., Proc. Natl.
in South America had the most wives Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106, 8134
and children. The underlying notion was (May 19, 2009).
one of (genetic) survival of the fittest:
Those warriors who were particularly
vicious were more likely to contribute
their genes to the gene pool.
Methodological objections have left this
an open question, however, and new
evidence now exists that calls this
interpretation into question (1): the most
aggressive warriors may have more
children but they have lower indices of
reproductive success than their milder
brethren in part perhaps because the
most aggressive warriors and their
offspring arc also more likely to be the
targets of revenge killings. These new
data are entirely consistent with John
Cacioppo's argument that the content of
the human gene pool has more to do
with the reproductive success of one's
offspring than one's own reproductive
success. Cacioppo argued further that
this genetic selection resulted in a social
brain that seeks meaning and connection
with individuals and with social entities
(e.g., groups) that extend beyond other
individuals.
In the next chapter, theologian
Don Browning also embraces the
concept of inclusive fitness and, through
the writings of Thomas Aquinas, shows
how religion serves the human need for
meaning and connection through the
ethics they advocate, the congregations
they form, the institutions they represent,
and the God they serve. In his view,
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years, new energy and fresh public
interest have been injected into this
-nr v — 1.throthr— conversation. This largely has come
t"'il:11.71-1-tt—trfitirs cts 1 about due to the new insights into
eescrocei religion and ethics achieved by
V
human . s 2 hC lUln Laislc-rn. le.Wfianh sZo ed . o ..c r a f t t..n collaboration between evolutionary
absatigthriman-z"4 :;
irwai T$4=71 E LI psychology and cognitive and social
neuroscience.
tr i —C
What are the likely social
consequences of this new interest in the
Chapter 33
relation of science and religion? There
are at least three possible answers. One
Science, Religion, and a Revived
might be the new atheism exemplified
Religious Humanism
by the writings of Richard Dawkins,
Daniel Dennett, Sam Harris, and
For over 150 years there has been
Christopher Hitchens. I In this approach,
a vital, and often contentious, dialogue
the alleged defective thinking of the
between science and religion. In recent
world religions is exposed, and a
worldvicw and way of life based strictly
3 The lead author is Don Browning, Ph.D., the on science are offered as replacement. A
Alexander Campbell Professor of Religious second option might be the return of a
Ethics and the Social Sciences. Emeritus,
hegemonic dominance of religion over
Divinity School, University of Chicago. He has
science. However, polarizing rhetoric
interests in the relation of the social sciences to
religious ethics for the purpose of addressing from advocates for the exclusive
various challenges facing modern life. His books interpretive priority of either science or
include Generative Man (1973, 1975; National religion has long since ceased to be
Book Award Finalist. 1974), Religious Thought
culturally or academically productive.
and the Modern Psychologies (1987, 2004). the
Instead, through dialogue about common
co-authored From Culture Wars to Common
Ground: Religion and the American Family issues, scientific and theological thinkers
Debate (1997, 2000), Christian Ethics and the may pose questions that lead to more
Moral Psychologies (2006). and Equality and the sophisticated inquiry in both fields.
Family (2007). He co-edited Sex, Marriage, and
Confidence in the productive
Family in the World Religions (2006), American
possibilities of reciprocal questioning is
Religions and the Family (2006), Children and
Childhood in American Religions (2009), and a hallmark of the long tradition known
Children and Childhood in World Religions as religious humanism. Here I illustrate
(2009). He is the co-principal investigator with the potential contribution of religious
Jean Bethke Elshtain of a Templeton Foundation
humanism by bringing recent
funded $4,000,000 New Science of Virtue
psychological research into dialogue
project.
In this essay. Browning acknowledges with the religious concept of love.
the antagonistic relationship that can be found
What would this religious
between science and religion, but he proposes
humanism be like? The major world
that the dialogue between science and religion
can now be conducted on philosophical grounds religions would remain visible and
that promote a new religious humanism that will viable as religious movements. But the
honor the core ideas of the great religions, refine
contributions of science would help
their view of nature, and increase the values of
these religions refine their interests in
health, wealth, education, and general well-
improving the health, education, wealth,
being.
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and overall well-being of their adherents. atheism, about the ultimate truth or
In addition, the sciences would help falsity of religious phenomena.2
them refine their grasp of the empirical
On the other hand, the religions
world about which they are, like humans
themselves can contribute to the
in general, constantly making judgments,
sciences. They can do this by offering
predictions, and characterizations. In
hypotheses about how social and
my vision, the attitude of scientists
religious ideas, behaviors, and rituals
toward religion would be first of all
can shape experience, even neural
phenomenological; they would first
processes, often for the good but
attempt to describe and understand
sometimes not. The religions can offer a
religious beliefs, ethics, and rituals in
more generous epistemology and
their full historical context. But their
ontology than science is inclined to find
interest in explaining some of the
useful for the tight explanatory interests
conditions that give rise to religious
of the laboratory or scientific survey.
phenomena would not be inhibited by
This too might generate new hypotheses
either religion or the wider society.
for scientific investigation. These would
There are several different approaches to
be some of the ground rules for how a
phenomenology. The perspective that I
dialogue between science and religion
recommend follows the "critical
might stimulate a revived religious
hermeneutic phenomenology" of Paul
humanism.
Ricoeur. Ricoeur advocates beginning
the study of religion with a Religious Humanisms of the Past
phenomenology — a careful description —
To speak of a revival suggests
of the person's or community's words,
that there have been many expressions of
symbols, metaphors, and narratives used
religious humanism in the past when
to communicate the meaning of a
some form of science, philosophy, and
religious experience or practice. This
religion creatively interacted. I will
view assumes that we cannot describe
limit myself to speaking primarily about
experience directly but rather that
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. A
experience is always mediated by
synthesis between Greek philosophical
symbols and metaphors. But Ricoeur's
psychology and Christianity can be
phenomenology does not stop with a
found in the use of Stoic theories of
description of these meanings. It builds
desire by the apostle Paul, 3 the presence
in a secondary place for science and
of Aristotle's family ethic — with its
explanation. It seeks through science to
implicit psycho-biology - in the
give explanatory accounts of the affects
household codes of Ephesians and I
and motivations that humans bring to
Colossians, 4 and the gospel of John's
these words, symbols, and metaphors. If
identification of Jesus with the Platonic
scientists followed Ricoeur's model,
and Stoic idea of the pre-existent
they would understand the importance of
"Word." 5 A more intentional religious
beginning with description, be hesitant
humanism can be found in Augustine's
to skip lightly over initial
use of the neo-Platonic Plotinus,
phenomenological meanings, appreciate
especially in the philosophical
yet grasp the limits of explanation, and
psychology of remembrance developed
be reluctant to plunge into speculations,
in his Confessions. 6 But the most
such as those of the new scientific
dramatic example of a religious
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humanism that spread simultaneously "Christian love" and all other forms of
into Judaism, Christianity, and Islam can love, the tradition of religious humanism
be found when the lost texts of Aristotle proposes that science clarifies the
were discovered, translated, and workings of love in human societies and
appropriated by scholars from these religion extends the scope of love
three religions who worked at the same beyond its most immediate domain of
tables in Islamic libraries in Spain and kinship.
Sicily during the ninth and tenth
There arc three major tensions in
centuries. Richard Rubinstein in his
theological discussions of Christian love.
timely book titled Aristotle's Children
They center around the two Greek words
(2003) tells the story well. 7 This gave
agape and eros and the Latin word
rise to forms of Aristotelian religious
caritas. A famous book titled Agape
humanism in the works of Thomas
and Eros (1953) written by the Swedish
Aquinas in Christianity, Maimonides in
theologian Anders Nygren traced the
Judaism, and Averroes in Islam. On the
debate through Christian history. 9
American scene, one sees another form
Nygren believed that the truly normative
of Christian humanism in the synthesis
and authentic understanding of Christian
of philosophical pragmatism, with all its
love is found in the word agape, the
influence from Darwin, and expressions
Greek word used for Christian love in
of liberal Christianity and the social
the New Testament. It refers to a kind of
gospel movement.8
self-giving, even self-sacrificial, love
Religious humanisms have not that is only possible by the grace of God.
always flourished and are subject to 1° Nygren was particularly interested in
attacks from both fundamentalists and arguing that Christian love did not build
scientific secularists. They need on what the Greek philosophers called
constant updating and vigorous eros. He claimed eros refers to the
intellectual development. But at their natural desires of humans to have and
best, they make it possible for societies unite with the goods of life. This
to maintain strong religious communities includes the goods of health, wealth,
as well as integrating symbolic affiliation, and pleasure but it also
umbrellas that protect the productive includes the higher goods of beauty and
interaction of the scientific disciplines truth. Nygren's point, however, was
with the wider cultural and religious life. that Christian love does not build on or
incorporate eros — the natural
An Example: The Agape, Caritas, and
aspirational strivings of humans. He
Eros Debate
believed he found this view of Christian
Few words in the English love in the New Testament (especially
language have such a range of everyday the writing of the apostle Paul) and
meanings and of serious philosophical Martin Luther, the giant of the Protestant
and theological consideration as the Reformation.
word love. For this reason, it is an
Nygren was particularly
excellent candidate for scientific
interested in dismantling the classical
investigation that has potential benefits
medieval Roman Catholic view of
for religious practice and everyday life.
Christian love that was often
Although some theologians have sought
summarized with the English word
to create a sharp division between
charity or the Latin word caritas. Why
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did Nygren oppose the caritas view of from evolutionary psychology and social
Christian love? The answer is that the neuroscience.
meaning of love as caritas did exactly
Moral Implications of Kin Altruism
what Nygren thought Paul and Luther,
and Inclusive Fitness
his theological heroes, did not do. In the
classic Roman Catholic view, love as As is well known, the idea of
caritas builds on eros. Caritas was seen inclusive fitness was first put forth in
to include natural desires for health and 1964 by William Hamilton. 12
affiliation. But the caritas view of love Hamilton's view of inclusive fitness
also held that religious education and holds that living beings not only struggle
God's grace built on and expanded these for their individual survival but for the
natural inclinations to entail a self-giving survival of offspring and kin who also
benevolence to others, even strangers carry their genes. Their altruism is
and enemies — an idea so central to the likely to be proportional to the
concept of Christian love. percentage of their genes that others
carry. This insight was further
All of this seemed too
developed by the concept of parental
naturalistic for Nygren. It seemed to
investment. Ronald Fisher and Robert
play down the importance of God's
Trivers (1972) defined it as "any
transforming grace. He joined other
investment by the parent in an individual
European neo-orthodox theologians of
offspring that increases the offspring's
his day such as Karl Barth and Rudolph
chance of surviving...at the cost of the
Bultmann in cutting off Christian love
parent's ability to invest in other
from eros,Il which in effect was to cut
offspring." 13 These insights were at the
Christian love from nature and desire —
core of the emerging field of
the very things scientists tend to study.
sociobiology and were first brought to
Beginning with Nygren's strong view of
the wider public attention by E.O.
agape and the strong supernaturalism of
Wilson's Sociobiology: The New
both Nygren and Barth, there was little
Synthesis (1975).14
room in these mid-twentieth century
Protestant trends for a productive But the moral implications of the
dialogue between Christian ethics and concept of inclusive fitness, parental
the new scientific advances in moral investment, and kin altruism have
psychology, evolutionary psychology, received competing interpretations.
and neuroscience. Richard Dawkins in his The Selfish Gene
(1976) turned these ideas into a defense
At the same time, however,
of philosophical ethical egoism and
breakthroughs in these very disciplines
argued that all altruistic acts are
have led to a new reassessment of the
disguised maneuvers to perpetuate our
Catholic caritas model of Christian love.
own genes. But there are other
IS
But before I review in more detail how
interpretations. Social neuroscientist
this model worked, especially in the
John Cacioppo interprets our motives
thought of the great medieval Roman
toward inclusive fitness and kin altruism
Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas, let
as the core of human intergenerational
me turn to review some of the moral
care and the vital link between sociality
implications of insights into kin altruism
and spirituality. In cooperation with his
and inclusive fitness emerging today
colleagues, his research on loneliness
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uses evolutionary theory on inclusive and caring creatures we are. Sociality is
fitness to order many of his findings. a fundamental characteristic of humans,
From the perspective of this model of and, according to Cacioppo, spirituality,
basic human motivations, loneliness can in its various forms, is an extension of
be seen as a condition that "promotes sociality. Religion is generally,
inclusive fitness by signaling ruptures in although not always, good for our
social connections and motivates the mental and physical health - our heart,
repair or replacement of these our blood pressure, our self-esteem, and
connections." According to his our self-control - just like having good
16
interpretation of inclusive fitness, our friends and family or not being lonely
gene continuity is not assured by simply are also good for our well-being. 18
having our own children. Our children Cacioppo and colleagues do not equate
also must have children as well. And sociality and religion; they are fully
this is a challenge entailing long-term aware that religions are complex
expenditures of energy. To account for phenomena with many different
this, Cacioppo writes something about doctrinal, ethical, ritual, organizational,
human infant dependency that is very personal, and social features that require
close to what both the Greek philosopher either rigorous experimental or clinical
Aristotle and the medieval Roman population studies to sort out, even from
Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas set the perspective of how they affect
down many centuries earlier. Cacioppo health. Nonetheless, he seems to hold
says, that the sociality that most religions offer
is a key reason for their efficacy in
For many species, the offspring need
human well-being.
little or no parenting to survive and
reproduce. Homo sapiens, however, Does Christian Love Build on Health?
are born to the longest period of
But my concern is the topic of
abject dependency of any species.
Christian love and not simply
Simple reproduction, therefore, is not
Christianity's contribution to mental and
sufficient to ensure that one's genes
physical health. Although Jesus is said
make it into the gene pool. For an
to have performed miracles of health,
individual's genes to make it to the
offering health in this world has never
gene pool, one's offspring must
been at the core of Christianity or, for
survive to reproduce. Moreover,
that matter, the other Abrahamic
social connections and the behaviors
religions of Judaism and Islam.
they engender (e.g., cooperation,
Bringing to maturity loving and self-
altruism, alliances) enhance the
giving persons has been the primary
survival and reproduction of those
concern of Christianity, whether or not
involved, increasing inclusive
this contributes to health and well-being.
fitness. I7
But the question is, as I elaborated
above, does Christian love build on eros
- that is, our strivings for health and
According to this view, the
other goods - or come exclusively from
twofold interaction between inclusive
some trans-natural source as Nygren
fitness and the long period of infant
believes the normative tradition taught?
dependency has shaped humans over the
And did Christianity ever identify eros
long course of evolution into the social
and our deepest motivations with
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something like inclusive fitness and kin father is preserved, by a kind of
altruism? succession, in the person of the son, it is
naturally befitting that the son succeed in
Let me start with Aquinas. In the
the things belonging to the father." 21
"Supplement" to his Summa Theologica
Aquinas's main source for this insight
111,
was Aristotle's Politics. In one place
Thomas follows Aristotle and the Aristotle wrote, " In common with other
Roman natural-law theorist Ulpian in animals and with plants, mankind have a
asserting that humans share with all natural desire to leave behind them an
animals an inclination to have offspring. image of themselves." 22
19 Having said this, he then introduces a
However, in both Aristotle and
very modem sounding commentary on
Aquinas, such claims were not just about
the uniqueness to humans of the long
the importance of kin continuity, they
period of infant dependency. Notice the
were statements about the origin and
similarity of his argument to the words
need of long-term investments by
of Cacioppo above. Aquinas writes,
parents at the human level. In contrast
Yet nature does not incline thereto in to his teacher Plato who, in his Republic,
the same way in all animals; since had advocated removing children from
there are animals whose offspring their biological parents in an effort to
are able to seek food immediately overcome the civil frictions created by
after birth, or are sufficiently fed by nepotism, 23 Aristotle counters with an
their mother; and in these there is no assertion about the origins of human
tic between male and female; care. Aristotle wrote, "That which is
whereas in those whose offspring common to the greatest number has the
needing the support of both parents, least care bestowed upon it." He
although for a short time, there is a believed that in Plato's state, "love will
certain tie, as may be seen in certain be watery....Of the two qualities which
birds. In man, however, since the chiefly inspire regard and affection —
child needs the parents' care for a that a thing is your own and that it is
long time, there is a very great tie your only one ; neither can exist in such
between male and female, to which a state as this."-4 This is an assertion
tie even the generic nature inclines. 2° about the importance of kin altruism in
human care.
Although Aquinas saw these
Although there is in this quote a
natural inclinations as important for the
description of how family formation
formation of long-term human care, he
emerges at the human level, there is an
believed that they were not sufficient for
implicit argument for both the fact of
mature parental love. Powerful social,
human infant dependency and what we
cultural, and indeed religious
today call inclusive fitness as well. But
reinforcements were also necessary for
these ideas are even more evident in the
stable parental investment to be realized.
next quote, although stated very much
This, once again, is due, according to
from the male point of view, a habit
Aquinas, because of the many long years
typical of his time. Aquinas says, "Since
of human childhood dependency; human
the natural life which cannot be
children need their parents for a very
preserved in the person of an undying
long period of time and over the course
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of many contingencies and challenges. treated "always as an end and never as a
This leads Aquinas to develop his means only." 26 In Aquinas's view,
theology of marriage as a way of acting on this belief, and with the
consolidating and stabilizing parental empowering grace of God, made it
commitment, especially paternal possible for Christians to build on yet
commitment, to their dependent analogically generalize their kin
children. 25 altruism to all children ofG od, even
those beyond the immediate family, their
Although neither Aristotle nor
own children, and their own kin. These
Aquinas presented the MI
wider assumptions may be beyond the
intergenerational scope of Cacioppo's
competence of science to assess. They
interpretation of kin altruism and
entail a step toward metaphysical
inclusive fitness — that it must extend to
speculation of the kind science would do
our children's children and not just our
better to avoid. Nonetheless, in the view
own — both perspectives comprehended
of Christian love developed in Aquinas,
the interlocking nature of kin altruism
the seeds of a religious humanism — in
and the well-spring of care, long-term
this case a Christian humanism —began
human commitment, and hence some of
to form.
the rudimentary energies of human
morality. I have tried to illustrate how
insights from Aristotle and Aquinas can
Of course, Aquinas and those
join with insights from evolutionary
who followed him supplemented these
psychology and social neuroscience to
naturalistic observations with additional
refine the Christian understanding of
epistemological presuppositions that
love. In pursuing this course, I join the
may seem strange to scientists. These
work of Stephen Pope and others in
included the idea that God works
presenting this option. 27 The kind of
through nature as well as grace, hence
Christian humanism found in Aquinas
God is present in the kin altruistic
makes it possible for Christianity to be
inclinations of parents and grandparents.
enriched by the modem sciences of
He also assumed that in order for kin
human nature. Aquinas's view is
altruism to be stable, the additional
strikingly different from Nygren's
social reinforcements of institutional
representation of Paul and Luther when
marriage and God's strengthening grace
Nygren contends that Christian love does
and forgiveness were also needed. In
not build on our own natural energies,
addition, he held - and Christianity has
but "has come to us from heaven." 28 Or
always taught - that Christian love
again, it is very different from Nygren's
includes more than kin altruism and the
view when he writes that the Christian is
care of our familial offspring; it must
"merely the tube, the channel through
include the love of neighbor, stranger,
which God's love flows." 29 The
and enemy, even to the point of self-
complete discontinuity in this statement
sacrifice. For the Christian, this was
between the downward love of God and
made possible by the idea that God was
the natural extension to nonkin of human
the creator of all humans and hence each
kin-altruistic impulses is stunning. And
person was a child of God and made in
such a view as Nygren's precludes the
God's image (imago dei). For this
possibility of a religious humanism of
reason, as Kant would say on different
the kind I have been describing. And it
grounds, each individual should be
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eliminates the possibility of the 2 For a discussion of these distinctions
refinements to religious views of human between different forms of
nature that the conversation between phenomenology, see Paul Ricoeur,
religion and science can offer. Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences
(Cambridge: Cambridge University
Conclusion
Press, 1981), pp. 63-100.
My argument has been that a
revived religious humanism can come 3 Will Deming, Paul on Marriage and
about through the dialogue between Celibacy (Cambridge: Cambridge
religion and science, particularly University Press, 1995). Troels Engbert-
between religion and the psychological Perdersen, Paul and the Stoics
sciences. I have illustrated this with the (Louisville, KY,: Westminster John
issue of love in Christianity. I believe Knox, 2000).
my argument could be illustrated with
°Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics (New
other religions, especially the Abrahamic
York: Random House, 1941), Bk. VIII,
religions of Judaism and Islam. As
ch. 10.
Aristotle's influence created a kind of
religious humanism in these religions in
3 The Interpreter's Bible: Luke and John,
the past, the broader dialogue between
Vol. 8 (Nashville, TN.: Abingdon Press,
science and religion may be able to do
1952), p. 465.
this for them in the future.
But the contributions will not 6 Peter Brown, Augustine ofH ippo
(Berkeley, CA.: University of California,
simply flow from science to religion.
1969), p. 178.
Even in this short essay, a question for
science to investigate has arisen. It is
'Richard Rubinstein, Aristotle's
this: how do religious and metaphysical
Children (New York: Harcourt, Inc.,
beliefs extend the impulse of natural kin
2003)
altruism, if at all? This goes beyond the
s
issue of the relation of religion to health. Edward Scribner Ames, Religion
It raises the question of the relation of (Chicago: Holt, 1929).
religion to expansive love for the distant
other. This is a good question that 9Anders Nygren, Agape and Eros
comes from taking the claims of religion (Philadelphia, PA.: Westminster Press,
seriously and an example of how 1953).
religion can continue to feed and
p. 57, 121-122.
challenge scientific inquiry.
References "Ibid., p. 101.
Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion 12William Hamilton, "The Genetical
(Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Co., Evolution of Social Behavior, II"
2006); Daniel Dennett, Breaking the Journal of Theoretical Biology 7
God Spell (New York, NY.: Viking, (1964), pp. 17-52.
2006); Sam Harris, Letter to a Christian
Nation (NY.; Alfred Knopf, 2006); "Ronald Fisher and Robert Trivers,
Christopher Hitchens, God is not Great "Parental Investment and Sexual
(NY.: Twelve, 2007). Selection," B. Campbell (ed.), Sexual
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Selection and the Descent ofM an 28Immanuel Kant, Foundations oft he
(Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1972), Metaphysics ofM orals (New York:
p. 139. Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1959), p. 49.
I.E.O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New "Stephen Pope, "The Order of Love in
Synthesis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Recent Roman Catholic Ethics, "
University Press, 1975). Theological Studies 52 (1991), pp. 255-
288.
"Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 28Nygren, Agape and Eros, p. 734.
1976).
"Ibid, p. 735.
"John Cacioppo, "Loneliness:
Conceptualization," (In press), pp. 4-5.
p. 5.
I8John Cacioppo and J. T. Brandon,
"Religious Involvement and Health,"
Psychological Inquiry 13:3 (2002), pp.
99
19Larry Arnhart, "Thomistic Natural
Law as Darwinian Natural Right," Ellen
Frenkel, Fred Miller, Jeffrey Paul (eds.),
Natural Law and Modem Moral
Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2001), pp. 1-2.
20Aquinas, Summa Theologica, III,
"Supplement," q., 41.1.
21Thomas Aquinas, Summa Contra
Gentiles (London: Burns, Oates, and
Washburn, 1928), 3, ii, p. 115.
22
Aristotic, Politics, Richard McKeon
(ed.) The Basic Works ofA ristotle (New
York: Random House, 1941), I, i.
"Plato, The Republic (New York:
Basic Books, 1968), Bk. 5, pp. 461-
465.
24Aristotle, Politics, Bk. 2, chpt. 3.
"Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, 3, ii,
p. 115.
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The Status of the Body Politic anti the reverberates throughout the human body,
Status of the Body Itself and its absence—in loneliness—is likely
to have long-term adverse effects on
In the long history of
personal health.
conversations between science and
religion, starting points matter. As Don
Browning demonstrates through the
example of Thomas Aquinas, when
religions start with a desire to understand
human behavior, such as the long-term
human commitment between parent and
child, they recognize that science might
illuminate and refine that understanding.
And religion, in turn, might shape social
institutions that not only enhance the
human drive toward social connection
but also imaginatively extend its
influence beyond direct kinship to
influence ethical relations with neighbor
and stranger. By starting with a shared
interest in understanding what Browning
calls "the rudimentary energies of
human morality," creative conversation
between science and religion thus
prompts a religious humanism, in which
religion partners with science to shape
models of fulfillment for human
sociality.
Like Browning, Louise Hawkley
starts with the human quest for social
connection. As humans mature,
Hawkley observes, they proceed from
childhood dependence not toward
independence but toward
interdependence. But, whereas
Browning pursued the implications of
interdependence for the body politic,
Hawkley wants to know the
consequences of interdependence for the
physical body. Her research focuses on
the interplay between psychological and
physical factors in the human sense of
social connectedness, and Hawkley finds
that "feeling wanted and accepted and
like one belongs are as vital to our
existence as the air we breathe. " A
robust sense of social connection
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